Intellectual
History
The
course aims at providing the history of ideas from the ancient to
the modern times. This course comprises three books: Critical Theories since 1965, A History of
Knowledge, and Sophie's
World.
A History of
Knowledge
Wisdom of the Ancients
Some fifty
centuries ago, when written history began, mankind had learned many things
about life. Human beings in many different parts of the world had discovered
not only how to use the skins of animals and birds for clothing, but also how
to weave wool, cotton and flax to make cloth. They had discovered not only how
to hunt animals and fish. For food but also how to grow grain and make bread so
as to survive themselves. They had learned not only how to make homes in cave
and other natural shelters, but also how to build houses and monumental
structures out of wood, stone, bricks and other materials. A part from that
they had also cultivated the concept of sacrifice. If we cast a glance of the
ancient history of the world, in almost all Civilizations like Mesopotamian,
Egyptian, Chinese, Indian all the above mentioned details can be found.
Regarding the wisdom of ancients, below-mentioned points are important.
i) They had learned the means of
survival.
ii) They had learned to manipulate other human beings.
iii) They had learned the means or entertainment through different mediums.
ii) They had learned to manipulate other human beings.
iii) They had learned the means or entertainment through different mediums.
Egypt: This civilization covers the time span from 3100 BC to
2900 BC. Egyptians did not like any change rather they always valorized status
quo. This Civilization developed in the Valley of Nile River. The society was
organized in hierarchical order having agro-based economy. At the top of
hierarchy there were gods, beneath them were the dead and at the bottom of
hierarchy there were human beings. They borrowed little from other cultures.
They invented their own form of writing an elaborate system or symbols known as
hieroglyphics. They also invented papyrus, paper like material made from the
stems or reeds. The Egyptians developed one of the first religions to emphasize
life after death. They tried to make sure their soul enjoyed a good life after
death. They built great tombs and mummified corpse to preserve them. They
filled the tomb with clothing, food, furnishing and jewelry for use in the next
world. The most famous Egyptian tombs are gigantic pyramids in which kings were
buried.
India: India is normally believed to have been born near
Indus Valley in around 2500BC. It is also called Indus Valley Civilization. One
of the main features of the Civilization is caste system. People at that time
were divided in four castes, though in modern time, the system is not so
pervasive, still in some distance parts of the country is based on caste
system. The four castes were-(1) Brahamin (2) Chettri (3) Baishya (4) Sudra
In these four castes, Brahaman and Chettri were supposed to be in top hierarchy and Baishya and Sudra was supposed to be in lower hierarchy. Each caste has its own system, customs, foods and occupation. The ruins of two large cities-Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa connected with this Civilization tell much about the Indus valley Civilization. The people of the Indus valley had a well-developed system of agriculture that provided food for the large population. They dug ditches and canals to irrigate their farms. The Indus cities had brick buildings and well-planned streets laid out in rectangular patterns. Archaeologists recently have discovered the standardized sizes of bricks and uniforms weights and measures were used throughout the Indus Valley. The Indus settlements traded with one another and with foreign culture.
In these four castes, Brahaman and Chettri were supposed to be in top hierarchy and Baishya and Sudra was supposed to be in lower hierarchy. Each caste has its own system, customs, foods and occupation. The ruins of two large cities-Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa connected with this Civilization tell much about the Indus valley Civilization. The people of the Indus valley had a well-developed system of agriculture that provided food for the large population. They dug ditches and canals to irrigate their farms. The Indus cities had brick buildings and well-planned streets laid out in rectangular patterns. Archaeologists recently have discovered the standardized sizes of bricks and uniforms weights and measures were used throughout the Indus Valley. The Indus settlements traded with one another and with foreign culture.
China: While talking about history of China we normally go to
first dynasty to rule China that is Shang which ruled from 1750BC to 1100BC.
Then after, Chou dynasty defeated Shang and ruled until 221BC. Right after Chou
dynasty, Shih-Huang-Ti became first sovereign emperor of China. It was
Shih-Huang-Ti who brought radical change in China. He began the construction
work in the country in China. His conception was that one should not sit idle
but should move towards the creative path of progression. So, in his time, the
Great Wall of China was built. He abolished feudalism that had overpowered
Chinese society for thousand years and replaced it with bureaucracy based on
Confucian principles. Confucius is a great philosopher of China who believed
that one becomes great not by the birth but by the merit he shows. Shih brought
this principle in practice in China. In his time, people were given a text to
read one who scored better marks in the exam he would deserve to be in high
post. Even in contemporary China, some posts are reserved for the noble family.
The contemporary communist government of China also has accepted this
principle. Modern democratic countries are also accepting it.
Mesopotamia: One of the most fertile regions lay between Tigris and
Euphrates in southern Mesopotamia (now Iraq) is a place where Mesopotamian
Civilization developed. People in this Civilization lived by farming, fishing
and hunting the wild floor of the river marshes. They built dikes to control
the flood of the river. They were the first people who invented the first form
of writing having picture like symbol. The symbols were later simplified to
produce cuneiforms, a system of writing having Wedge-Shaped character.
Archaeologists have found thousands of clay tablets with Sumerian writings. They
used baked bricks to build great palaces and towering temples called ziggurat
in their cities. They believed their gods lived on the top of ziggurat. They
were capable to make craftwork, jewelry, musical instruments, decorative
pottery and stone seals engraved with pictures and inscription. After the long
run or this Civilization, the city of Babylon became the center of one kingdom
where Babylonian king Hummurabi ruled. Hummurabi developed one of the first law
courts in the history. The famous code of Hummurabi contains nearly 300 legal
provisions, including many Sumerian and akkadian laws.
Aztec and Inca Civilization
Aztec and Inca are the civilizations of Mexico and Peru respectively. In both civilization people did hard work. Aztec had discovered a highly accurate calendar and Inca did not have exact calendar. They were able to construct large and beautiful buildings out of stone. They both have agro-based economic system. In these both civilizations, human sacrifice was practiced. Unlike in Inca civilization, there was regular human sacrifice in Aztec civilization. In every week sacrifice was performed, if some misfortune happened in noble family beautiful maidens were selected for sacrifice. Since, there were so many bad customs in those civilization, as a result they could not sustain for a long-time. Later these civilizations were conquered by Spanish civilization.
Aztec and Inca are the civilizations of Mexico and Peru respectively. In both civilization people did hard work. Aztec had discovered a highly accurate calendar and Inca did not have exact calendar. They were able to construct large and beautiful buildings out of stone. They both have agro-based economic system. In these both civilizations, human sacrifice was practiced. Unlike in Inca civilization, there was regular human sacrifice in Aztec civilization. In every week sacrifice was performed, if some misfortune happened in noble family beautiful maidens were selected for sacrifice. Since, there were so many bad customs in those civilization, as a result they could not sustain for a long-time. Later these civilizations were conquered by Spanish civilization.
Human Sacrifice
Sacrifice, one of the most fundamental and ubiquitous of religious rituals was or is practiced in almost all of the religions that have ever existed. In the sacrifice that was central to all the ancient religious, the sacrificial object was usually an animals, especially a valuable one: an ox or a ram, whose strength and virility were given to god so as to get divine power. In almost all religion sacrificial rituals were observed to appease the unseen power. Slowly and gradually, human cruelty crossed the limitation and people began to sacrifice human beings. Human sacrifice seems to have originated among the first agricultural people. The early Greeks ...... and Roman, the earliest Jews, the Chinese and Japanese, the Indian and many other ancient people sacrificed human beings to their gods. The victim was often dressed in magnificent garments and adorned with Jewels so that he or she might go in glory to the god. Judaism knew that it is the human cruelty and this cruelty should be stopped. Judaism is the first religion that stopped human sacrifice and the bitter story of human sacrifice came to an end.
Sacrifice, one of the most fundamental and ubiquitous of religious rituals was or is practiced in almost all of the religions that have ever existed. In the sacrifice that was central to all the ancient religious, the sacrificial object was usually an animals, especially a valuable one: an ox or a ram, whose strength and virility were given to god so as to get divine power. In almost all religion sacrificial rituals were observed to appease the unseen power. Slowly and gradually, human cruelty crossed the limitation and people began to sacrifice human beings. Human sacrifice seems to have originated among the first agricultural people. The early Greeks ...... and Roman, the earliest Jews, the Chinese and Japanese, the Indian and many other ancient people sacrificed human beings to their gods. The victim was often dressed in magnificent garments and adorned with Jewels so that he or she might go in glory to the god. Judaism knew that it is the human cruelty and this cruelty should be stopped. Judaism is the first religion that stopped human sacrifice and the bitter story of human sacrifice came to an end.
Major religions o the World
Judaism: Abraham was a founder of Judaism. It was Abraham
himself who first stopped human sacrifice. Abraham believed that he had a
special contact with God. Judaism is the religion of Jews. They believed in
single God. Jews think themselves as
1. They are the chosen people of God.
2. They are the only witness to God's goodness.
3. They are the people to communicate God's goodness to others in return God would have given His mercy to them. They worshipped the God Jehovah who is supposed to be a god of justice and sometimes also called a very angry god
1. They are the chosen people of God.
2. They are the only witness to God's goodness.
3. They are the people to communicate God's goodness to others in return God would have given His mercy to them. They worshipped the God Jehovah who is supposed to be a god of justice and sometimes also called a very angry god
Christianity: Christ was Jew, and he accepted without demur all three of
those things that he received from his fore fathers. But later he changed them
that are:
1. Jews are the chosen people of God.
2. They are witness to God's goodness.
3. They are people to communicate God's goodness to others.
1. Jews are the chosen people of God.
2. They are witness to God's goodness.
3. They are people to communicate God's goodness to others.
He was born in Bethlehem in 4AD. From
the time when he was born, passage of all subsequent time was measured by most
of the countries in the world. He died at the hill of Golgotha, the place in
Jerusalem, on Good Friday of the year 30AD. He perished on a cross; Roman
governor of the province could not tolerate his religious preaching as a result
the Roman governor commanded to crucify him in the cross. Jesus almost always
spoke in parables, which required interpretation in those days and still do
today. Christ is supposed to have established the Christian Church. Thus
Christian everywhere believes that the churches were the actual creation of
Christ and cling to his teachings.
(Judaism and
Christianity Compared)
Judaism Christianity
1. Abraham is a founder of Judaism. 1. Jesus Christ is founder father of Christianity.
2. Believes in old testament of Bible. 2. Believes in New testament of Bible.
3. Judaism takes Christ as a prophet after Abraham. 3. Christianity takes Christ as the son of God.
4. The Jewish God is angry God 4. Christian God is kind God.
Christian accuses Jews of betraying Christ. It was Jews who killed Christ. Therefore, this charge has created unmaintainable gap between Christianity and Judaism.
Judaism Christianity
1. Abraham is a founder of Judaism. 1. Jesus Christ is founder father of Christianity.
2. Believes in old testament of Bible. 2. Believes in New testament of Bible.
3. Judaism takes Christ as a prophet after Abraham. 3. Christianity takes Christ as the son of God.
4. The Jewish God is angry God 4. Christian God is kind God.
Christian accuses Jews of betraying Christ. It was Jews who killed Christ. Therefore, this charge has created unmaintainable gap between Christianity and Judaism.
Islam: Muhammad who was born in Mecca in 560AD was the founder of
Islamic religion. He died in Medina. He founded as new religion that is Islam
and united all Arabia in a single thread of Islam. For Islam, Mecca and Medina
are holy places. One day, Muhammad got the revelation of god in his dream,
slowly and gradually he began to get messages from the god. He later on
collected those messages which ultimately became Koran, a holy book of Islam. He
wanted to defuse the message that he got from the god but people of Mecca could
not believe upon him so he went to Medina to take shelter. Muslims are very
much strict in their belief. Their primary aim is to save their faith at any
rate. They are strict regarding their religion because they are never influenced by other religion. They
believe in one god that is Allah.
Judeo -
Christianity and Islam Compared
Judeo Christianity Islam
1. More kind than Islam. 1. Islamic people are fierce and dogmatic.
2. Believes in two distinct religions. 2. Believes in only one god.
3. Having faith in god but do not let the god to have interference on state affairs. 3. Having faith in god but people of this religion believe in presence of god in every happenings.
4. Believe is crusade. 4. Believe in Jihad (religious war).
5. Having religious tolerance 5. Not having religious tolerance.
Judeo Christianity Islam
1. More kind than Islam. 1. Islamic people are fierce and dogmatic.
2. Believes in two distinct religions. 2. Believes in only one god.
3. Having faith in god but do not let the god to have interference on state affairs. 3. Having faith in god but people of this religion believe in presence of god in every happenings.
4. Believe is crusade. 4. Believe in Jihad (religious war).
5. Having religious tolerance 5. Not having religious tolerance.
Buddhism: Gautam Buddha, a founder of Buddhism was born in Nepal in
563BC in a very sophisticated royal family. He renounced all the so-called
pelf, power and prosperity as he found them full of illusion and deception
having blocked eternal path of 'Nirvana'. One day, he found people having born,
being old and having died and was shocked. He wanted to find out reason behind
suffering. In search of eternal truth he started meditating, after utter
meditation, he suddenly realized the eternal truth and became Buddha, the
enlightened one. His whole philosophy is summed up in four points.
1. The world is full of suffering.
2. There is reason behind suffering.
3. Emancipation from suffering is possible, for that one must forsake DESIRE
4. Nirvana is the ultimate reality or Buddhism.
1. The world is full of suffering.
2. There is reason behind suffering.
3. Emancipation from suffering is possible, for that one must forsake DESIRE
4. Nirvana is the ultimate reality or Buddhism.
Nirvana can be achieved
by following below-motioned eight fold paths.
1. Right understanding.
2. Right thought.
3. Right speech
4. Right livelihood.
5. Right bodily action.
6. Right effort.
7. Right mindfulness.
8. Right concentration.
1. Right understanding.
2. Right thought.
3. Right speech
4. Right livelihood.
5. Right bodily action.
6. Right effort.
7. Right mindfulness.
8. Right concentration.
Lesson from the
past
Most of the ancient kingdoms and empires arose out of the turmoil of warring families, villages or tribes. For almost all of them, the establishment of political and social order became the most important task. The order was maintained by force alone. People once threatened of pain and death remained quiet and obedient. But the question is how to maintain social order without using force. Egyptian preferred status quo rather than any social dynamism. Indians took caste system as a way to maintain the vast mass. This means person's birth justifies the social position. As far as Chinese are concerned, they believed in Confucianism which says that birth alone does not fit to social position. They believed in bureaucracy based on merit list and merit was enhanced by learning. Mesopotamian civilization gave literacy quite important which enabled people to be advance. This way, ancient civilizations adopted different means to maintain the social order.
But the religious leaders were not concerned with the maintenance of social order. They were against the exercise of power of their contemporary time. Abraham and Jews believed in their single god that is Jehovah. They also insisted that human beings themselves are responsible for their actions, not the God. Christianity also opposed the idea that god is responsible (remember story or Adam and eve). Confucius did not regard the feudal system or his time in which people occupied the supreme position by virtue of birth alone. Buddha fought against the narrow conception or caste system.
Most of the ancient kingdoms and empires arose out of the turmoil of warring families, villages or tribes. For almost all of them, the establishment of political and social order became the most important task. The order was maintained by force alone. People once threatened of pain and death remained quiet and obedient. But the question is how to maintain social order without using force. Egyptian preferred status quo rather than any social dynamism. Indians took caste system as a way to maintain the vast mass. This means person's birth justifies the social position. As far as Chinese are concerned, they believed in Confucianism which says that birth alone does not fit to social position. They believed in bureaucracy based on merit list and merit was enhanced by learning. Mesopotamian civilization gave literacy quite important which enabled people to be advance. This way, ancient civilizations adopted different means to maintain the social order.
But the religious leaders were not concerned with the maintenance of social order. They were against the exercise of power of their contemporary time. Abraham and Jews believed in their single god that is Jehovah. They also insisted that human beings themselves are responsible for their actions, not the God. Christianity also opposed the idea that god is responsible (remember story or Adam and eve). Confucius did not regard the feudal system or his time in which people occupied the supreme position by virtue of birth alone. Buddha fought against the narrow conception or caste system.
Alphabets: The first alphabet came into being in Mesopotamian
civilization around 8000BC. But the credit for investing the first standard
alphabet goes to Phoenicians but Phoenicians alphabet contains only concerns.
So, it did not help to transcribe any Indo-European language. The Greek people
around the middle of the eighth century BC invented vowels. So, the invention
of vowels was the great contribution to mankind not all the writings are
alphabetical. Chinese language is not alphabetical but the language like
English, German, Hindi, and Nepali which can be written down in alphabet.
Normally, language having alphabets are clearer than those having not, English
language is alphabetical, it contains 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). And these
vowels have helped to find the differences in writings. It is the very vowels
that differentiate one word from the other. Phoenician discovered the standard
alphabet. But Greek were first to discover vowels. So, the credit for
discovering alphabet undoubtedly goes to the Greek. With the invention of
alphabet people became able to write with clarity. Writing also helps people
think better.
Zero: Zero was invented long back. But its utility was not
realized up to very late. Greeks were forward in mathematics. They measured
this physical world in mathematical terms, they made the use of zero but they
were confused about the positional notation. The zero takes the position of 10,
100, 1000 and so on. Greeks were not aware of that. Indian were well aware
about the positional notation of zero, it is the zero that moves the
mathematics forward.
The
Greek Explosion If
we cast a glance to the entire gamut of western history, we find that there
occurred two knowledge explosions; the first is in Greece during the 6th
century BC and the second in Europe known as the Renaissance in the sixteenth
century. The Greek explosion had affected the whole world and gave striking
advance in mathematics and revolutionary theories about matter and force.
Miletus,
the largest and most prosperous of Greek cities of Ionia has the honor to be
the pioneering center of pre-Socratic philosophy which mainly consists of
cosmology or philosophy of nature. Main interest was in the word that surrounds
man the cosmos. Nature philosophy was looking for underlying laws of nature.
Its concern was natural world and its process, an attempt to understand the
actual process of change in nature by studying nature itself was chief motive
of natural philosophy. Natural philosophers were looking for certain basic
substance at the root of all changes which cause all things change but itself
remain intact. It was natural philosophy which paved way for liberating
philosophy from religion and thereby guided it towards scientific reasoning as a
result this philosophy became precursor to science.
Some
pre-Socratic philosophy or natural philosophers
(1) Thales: He was born
in 625 BC in Miletus. He was a scientist also and supposed to have introduced
Egyptian geometry in Greece. He also discovered some of the theorems of the
first book of Euclid's elements. He is also supposed to have predicted the
solar eclipse on May 28, 585BC and also measured the Egyptian pyramids. He
thought there must be basic substances (components) underlying all the changes.
He said water is the cause of all the change in material universe, which
without changing itself change other elements of the world. He asserted that
this material universe can be understood with human mind. Human mind in this
world is quite intelligible said Thales. There is nothing that a mind can not
understand. Can human mind itself be understood? He thought this question and
pondered over it but could not solve this question. Ultimately this remains
problem for him.
(2) Anaximander: He is cartographer who prepared maps
and described about different principles. He was of the opinion that the
substratum of things was infinite or boundless from which all things emanate
and to which all things return at last. He said this world is full of contrary
elements like hot and cold, wet and dry, life and death and so on. He regarded
all things are perishable in this word. For him nothing is divine but matter
alone.
(3) Anaximenes:
Similar to Thales and Anaximander he thought about the existence of an
underlying substance as the source of all natural changes. He regards air or
vapor as the substratum and water as Condensed air and Fire rarefied air. The
there forms of water gas, liquid and solid are progressive stages of
condensation.
(4) Parmerides: He is a founder of Eleatic school and
he is the most famous among his group of thinkers. His major concepts are as
follows-
– Human reason is the
primary source of knowledge of the world. Knowledge through senses is incorrect
and misleading, since it does not correspond with our reason.
– This world is a continuous indivisible plenum.
– Being is without beginning and without end. It is indivisible and universal.
– Everything that exists had always existed.
– Nothing actually changes.
– This world is a continuous indivisible plenum.
– Being is without beginning and without end. It is indivisible and universal.
– Everything that exists had always existed.
– Nothing actually changes.
(5) Heraclitus:
He held the views that reality is like an ever-flowing stream and nothing is ever at rest for a moment. The world is full of opposite, the routine of the world moves ahead with a constant interplay of those opposites. Everything is changeable even we cannot cross the same river twice, it is already changed. He had the conception that the universal reason or logos or God guides everything in nature.
(6) Empedolces:
He regards that matter is immutable in its essence but bodies are in a state of constant change as their four constituent elements or roots, earth, air, fire and water.
(7) Democritus:
He is an atomist who gave the theory of Atom in the 6th BC. He held the view that each object in nature is made up of invisible tiny particles called 'atoms' having eternal and immutable attributes. The basic cause of all change is atom. When atoms are combined a shape or form takes place. When form dissolves it becomes the atom again. Later, it was proved that he was wrong in his thinking that atoms are uncuttable. During 20thC, science has already proved that smallest unit of atoms are electron, proton and neutron. Any way the credit goes him as a propounder of atomic theory.
He held the views that reality is like an ever-flowing stream and nothing is ever at rest for a moment. The world is full of opposite, the routine of the world moves ahead with a constant interplay of those opposites. Everything is changeable even we cannot cross the same river twice, it is already changed. He had the conception that the universal reason or logos or God guides everything in nature.
(6) Empedolces:
He regards that matter is immutable in its essence but bodies are in a state of constant change as their four constituent elements or roots, earth, air, fire and water.
(7) Democritus:
He is an atomist who gave the theory of Atom in the 6th BC. He held the view that each object in nature is made up of invisible tiny particles called 'atoms' having eternal and immutable attributes. The basic cause of all change is atom. When atoms are combined a shape or form takes place. When form dissolves it becomes the atom again. Later, it was proved that he was wrong in his thinking that atoms are uncuttable. During 20thC, science has already proved that smallest unit of atoms are electron, proton and neutron. Any way the credit goes him as a propounder of atomic theory.
Sophists
After natural philosophy, Greek thought moves towards man and society. Sophist's major concern was 'man' and his place in society. There were itinerant teachers and philosophers who claimed to be wise and informed persons and made their living by teaching people about philosophy. They disregarded traditional mythology and also rejected futile philosophical speculations. They gave birth to the philosophical concept of skepticism. Protagoras is one of the famous sophists who said 'man is the measure of all things'. According to him humans cannot have definite knowledge if God exits or not. His attitude towards god is that or agonistic. He regarded all morals and laws as only relatively valid. Sophists believed in no absolute ethical values but rather relative value of morals. They seem to be skeptical about human knowledge of truth about nature and the cosmos.
After natural philosophy, Greek thought moves towards man and society. Sophist's major concern was 'man' and his place in society. There were itinerant teachers and philosophers who claimed to be wise and informed persons and made their living by teaching people about philosophy. They disregarded traditional mythology and also rejected futile philosophical speculations. They gave birth to the philosophical concept of skepticism. Protagoras is one of the famous sophists who said 'man is the measure of all things'. According to him humans cannot have definite knowledge if God exits or not. His attitude towards god is that or agonistic. He regarded all morals and laws as only relatively valid. Sophists believed in no absolute ethical values but rather relative value of morals. They seem to be skeptical about human knowledge of truth about nature and the cosmos.
The Greek
Explosion
Greek Classical
Thinkers
(1) Socrates: He did not agree with the view of sophists that all morals and laws as only relatively valid. He regards that there are some norms which are absolute and universally valid, and objective. Most of the thinkers before Socrates were more concerned about external things but Socrates gave emphasis on human reason and soul. Though oracle or Delphi declared him as the wisest of the Greeks but his opinion about himself was that "one thing only I know and that is that I know nothing." He did not give spacious room for lecturing method but rather used debate and finally emerged as a great master of the art of discourses. The Socratic method demands for accurate definition, clear thinking and exact analysis so as to reach in the heart of truth. He called himself a philosopher in the sense one who loves wisdom. He gave pungent criticism to the all forms of injustice and corruption of contemporary Athenian government. His philosophical project is to provide a solid foundation for our knowledge. He opines that understanding coming from within leads to true insight. He also held the view that every human beings no matter whether male or female, poor or rich have some common sense. The concept of virtue is the crux of his philosophy. He was so firm in his belief that he never surrendered himself before ignorant Athenian government which, without understanding the underlying reality blamed him of corrupting the youth by misleading them. Ultimately, he did not bow down before them rather drank the poison called "hemlock" and died. For him, death is something which helps to move from this physical world to the next eternal world.
(1) Socrates: He did not agree with the view of sophists that all morals and laws as only relatively valid. He regards that there are some norms which are absolute and universally valid, and objective. Most of the thinkers before Socrates were more concerned about external things but Socrates gave emphasis on human reason and soul. Though oracle or Delphi declared him as the wisest of the Greeks but his opinion about himself was that "one thing only I know and that is that I know nothing." He did not give spacious room for lecturing method but rather used debate and finally emerged as a great master of the art of discourses. The Socratic method demands for accurate definition, clear thinking and exact analysis so as to reach in the heart of truth. He called himself a philosopher in the sense one who loves wisdom. He gave pungent criticism to the all forms of injustice and corruption of contemporary Athenian government. His philosophical project is to provide a solid foundation for our knowledge. He opines that understanding coming from within leads to true insight. He also held the view that every human beings no matter whether male or female, poor or rich have some common sense. The concept of virtue is the crux of his philosophy. He was so firm in his belief that he never surrendered himself before ignorant Athenian government which, without understanding the underlying reality blamed him of corrupting the youth by misleading them. Ultimately, he did not bow down before them rather drank the poison called "hemlock" and died. For him, death is something which helps to move from this physical world to the next eternal world.
(2) Plato: He was a disciple of Socrates. After
the tragic death of Socrates, Plato left Athens in 399BC and for more than
twelve years he wondered in different places and accumulated large stuff of
knowledge. He had versatile personality having intoxicative mixture of
philosophy, poetry, science and art. His dialogues remain one of the priceless
treasures of the world. The best of them, The Republic, is a complete treatise
in itself. This is a brilliant fusion of his ideas regarding metaphysic,
theology, ethics, psychology, pedagogy, politics and his theory of art. He
established his own school of philosophy entitled "Academy in Athens"
after the name of a Greek hero Academus. Philosophy mathematics and gymnastic
were the subjects, taught there through lively discount. Talking about
knowledge, he states that knowledge obtained through our five senses is inexact
and incomplete as in the sensory world everything is in the state of constant
change and nothing is permanent. Just opposite to the world of senses, the
world of idea is eternal and immutable. True knowledge of things can only be
understood only with the application of reason. World of idea can not be
perceived by the sense but only by the reason. Plato accepts duality of the
world that is (1) Physical (2) Spiritual. He also accepts the duality of the
knowledge that is (1) Sense based (2) Reason based.
He regards man having dual existence - body and soul, the first represents sensory world whereas the second is attributed with realm of reason and has the potentiality to survey the world of ideas. For Plato entire natural phenomena is mere shadow of the immutable forms of ideas. Plato is of the opinion that philosophy or wise men should be king or ruler of the state. He says an ideal state is ruled by reason. Bureaucracy of the ideal state corresponds to the three parts of human body the head, the chest and the abdomen. Head represents reason, chest represents Will and abdomen represents appetite. Reason aspires to wisdom. Will aspires to courage; appetite must be curbed so that temperance can be exercised.
He regards man having dual existence - body and soul, the first represents sensory world whereas the second is attributed with realm of reason and has the potentiality to survey the world of ideas. For Plato entire natural phenomena is mere shadow of the immutable forms of ideas. Plato is of the opinion that philosophy or wise men should be king or ruler of the state. He says an ideal state is ruled by reason. Bureaucracy of the ideal state corresponds to the three parts of human body the head, the chest and the abdomen. Head represents reason, chest represents Will and abdomen represents appetite. Reason aspires to wisdom. Will aspires to courage; appetite must be curbed so that temperance can be exercised.
(3)Aristotle:
He was no doubt most brilliant disciple of Plato. However, his contest and the
way of speculation sharply differ from Plato. As Plato was heavily engrossed
with eternal ideas "Forms", he utterly neglected sensory world,
nature and its process. Aristotle just in contrast was totally devoted to learn
natural process and changes in nature. For Plato only reason was valid point
for epistemology but for Aristotle reasons as well as senses have equal ratio,
validity and authenticity. Plato regards objects seen in the natural world as
reflection or things which existed in the world of ideas and thereby in the
human soul. Aristotle refuting the platonic logic stated that things which are
in the human soul are purely reflections of natural objects not of the world or
ideas. Hence, he differs from Plato in his concept that nature is the real
world. He also stated that nothing exists in consciousness that has not first
been experienced by our senses, our reason is completely empty unless we have
sensed things outside, and hence, man does not possess innate ideas. Aristotle
defined an object as a construct with a unity of form and substance. He states
the substance is what things are made of and the form the things' specific
characteristics. The most characteristic and original of Aristotle contribution
to philosophy is the doctrine of syllogism, a trio preposition or which the
third (conclusion) follows from two premises. For Example,
Man is a rational animal.
Prajawal is man.
Prajawal therefore is a rational animal.
He defines Soul as vital principal of any organism. The soul is the sum total of body and reason. These two are inseparable parts of the rational power of human soul. According to Aristotle, the form of art is imitation of reality, it holds mirror up to nature. The aim of art is not to represent to outward appearance of things but their inborn significance. Sublime form of art appeals to both intellect and feelings. He says the principle condition of happiness is the life of reason. He opines that man being a rational animal, gets his full form realized in the society. It is through state that the highest form of human fellowship can be attained. He describes three forms of government as 'constitutions' and their degraded forms.
Monarchy and its degenerated form is tyranny.– Aristocracy and its degenerated form is oligarchy.– Democracy and its degenerated form is mobocracy.
In normal situation, any form of government is apt for the society. His view about woman is that, an unfinished man and left standing on a lower step in the scale of development. The male is by nature superior the ruler. The best condition for woman is to be in domestic life. He didn't regard slaves and woman as citizens of the state
The Greek
Explosion
Greece VS
Persia, (Fruitful Conflict for Greek)
Greece and Persia involved in war in the place called Marathoon in 490BC. In this war, Persians were defeated despite being small group of army from the side of Greek. The reason behind Greek being victorious is that they were fighting for the sake of their country whereas Persians were mercenaries fighting in the foreign land for the sake of profit. Since Greeks were fighting for the sake of nation, they had zeal and enthusiasm as far as the war is concerned. In war, sense of patriotism plays vital role, as Greeks were devotedly fighting then ultimately became victorious. This war actually helped for the development of history. Herodotus was the first man who wrote history with chronological order having beginning middle and end. In his history writings, we find the inclusion of time, as time and period play crucial role for the design or history. Herodotus footsteps later on were followed by Thucydides. He added one more thing that is the dialogues of the great warriors. The warriors were already dead so the inclusion of dialogues may be quite imaginative though sometimes it may not be so. But after all, war taught two things for Greek people.
Greece and Persia involved in war in the place called Marathoon in 490BC. In this war, Persians were defeated despite being small group of army from the side of Greek. The reason behind Greek being victorious is that they were fighting for the sake of their country whereas Persians were mercenaries fighting in the foreign land for the sake of profit. Since Greeks were fighting for the sake of nation, they had zeal and enthusiasm as far as the war is concerned. In war, sense of patriotism plays vital role, as Greeks were devotedly fighting then ultimately became victorious. This war actually helped for the development of history. Herodotus was the first man who wrote history with chronological order having beginning middle and end. In his history writings, we find the inclusion of time, as time and period play crucial role for the design or history. Herodotus footsteps later on were followed by Thucydides. He added one more thing that is the dialogues of the great warriors. The warriors were already dead so the inclusion of dialogues may be quite imaginative though sometimes it may not be so. But after all, war taught two things for Greek people.
(1) It gave idea of war
strategy.
(2) It enhanced in the development of history.
(2) It enhanced in the development of history.
Therefore, war became
favorable for Greek that is why sometimes it was also called fruitful conflict.
Tragedy of
Athens
The most important period of ancient Greek drama was 400BC. Tragedies were performed as part of an important yearly religious and civic celebration called the city "Dionysia." This festival, which lasted several days, offered hotly contested prizes for the best tragedy. Greek tragedy, perhaps was associated with religious celebrations, was solemn, poetic and philosophical nearly all the surviving tragedies were based on myths. Typically, the main character was an admirable but not perfect person confronted by different moral choice. The character's struggle against hostile force ended in defeat and in most Greek tragedies his or her death. As far as the drama is concerned, the credit goes to Aeschylus as an inventor of drama, who introduced second character in drama. Since then true drama began. Before him, the play consisted a single Figure who represents God or hero and exchange poetic dialogues with group or chorus, who represent common people. He wrote a trilogy and argued that great people have hubris that leads their downfall. Sophocles is the playwright whose works serve as the primary model for Aristotle writing on tragedy. Unlike Aeschylus, he added that not just the great men, all men are caught in the powerful grip of hubris. In his tragedy, we find the conflict between human beings and unseen yet very mighty power as in Oedipus Rex. He was also more skillful in building climaxes and developing episodes.
Euripides is often praised for his realism, his treatment of traditional gods and myths shows considerable doubt about religion and he questioned moral standards of his time. He said even god has got flaw. Even god has the quality of Jealousy, trick, anger, hatred etc. He brought god into human realm through his tragedy.
The most important period of ancient Greek drama was 400BC. Tragedies were performed as part of an important yearly religious and civic celebration called the city "Dionysia." This festival, which lasted several days, offered hotly contested prizes for the best tragedy. Greek tragedy, perhaps was associated with religious celebrations, was solemn, poetic and philosophical nearly all the surviving tragedies were based on myths. Typically, the main character was an admirable but not perfect person confronted by different moral choice. The character's struggle against hostile force ended in defeat and in most Greek tragedies his or her death. As far as the drama is concerned, the credit goes to Aeschylus as an inventor of drama, who introduced second character in drama. Since then true drama began. Before him, the play consisted a single Figure who represents God or hero and exchange poetic dialogues with group or chorus, who represent common people. He wrote a trilogy and argued that great people have hubris that leads their downfall. Sophocles is the playwright whose works serve as the primary model for Aristotle writing on tragedy. Unlike Aeschylus, he added that not just the great men, all men are caught in the powerful grip of hubris. In his tragedy, we find the conflict between human beings and unseen yet very mighty power as in Oedipus Rex. He was also more skillful in building climaxes and developing episodes.
Euripides is often praised for his realism, his treatment of traditional gods and myths shows considerable doubt about religion and he questioned moral standards of his time. He said even god has got flaw. Even god has the quality of Jealousy, trick, anger, hatred etc. He brought god into human realm through his tragedy.
The spirit of
Greek thought
The Greeks learned not just because they were curious and travelled to alien places but because of their revolutionary discovery of how to learn systematically. Before Thales, knowledge was under the singular monopoly of ruling class that is king and princes or priests. But Thales and his followers changed knowledge from a mystery into public thing. Thales was of the opinion that anyone who could understand his principle might add to it for others benefit as well as his own. Aristotle was a man who published many books and they were defused wherever Greek went. After the development of Greek thought, there was suddenly a new thing in the world which the Greek called episteme-related with knowledge. The spirit of Greek thought helped to develop a curriculum which the Greek called paideia. The idea of science developed along with the spirit of the extension of Greek thought. The eagerness with which the Greek everywhere threw themselves into the scientific study of everything and especially mathematics. Due to the extension of Greek thought, we are able to cultivate the sense or skepticism so that it has helped us to formulate knowledge of different kinds. Greek spirit of thought has also taught the world to be iconoclasts and adventures which have helped to question every tradition and seek to change every established rule.
The Greeks learned not just because they were curious and travelled to alien places but because of their revolutionary discovery of how to learn systematically. Before Thales, knowledge was under the singular monopoly of ruling class that is king and princes or priests. But Thales and his followers changed knowledge from a mystery into public thing. Thales was of the opinion that anyone who could understand his principle might add to it for others benefit as well as his own. Aristotle was a man who published many books and they were defused wherever Greek went. After the development of Greek thought, there was suddenly a new thing in the world which the Greek called episteme-related with knowledge. The spirit of Greek thought helped to develop a curriculum which the Greek called paideia. The idea of science developed along with the spirit of the extension of Greek thought. The eagerness with which the Greek everywhere threw themselves into the scientific study of everything and especially mathematics. Due to the extension of Greek thought, we are able to cultivate the sense or skepticism so that it has helped us to formulate knowledge of different kinds. Greek spirit of thought has also taught the world to be iconoclasts and adventures which have helped to question every tradition and seek to change every established rule.
Hellenism
It is the period of Greek history, language and culture from the death of Alexander the great 323BC to the defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Antony by Octavian in 31BC. The Hellenistic period saw Greek culture spread through the Mediterranean and into the Middle East and Asia. Alexander the great the king of Macedonia defeated the Persians and Egyptian empire, linked the orient as far as India to the Greek civilization. It really initiated a new phase in human history. This phase is known as Hellenism covering almost 300 years, marked for the leading role of Greek language and culture. Before Rome entirely won over the Hellenistic kingdom about 50BC Rome too was a province of Greek culture. In the military advance of his Army Alexander had dreamed of spreading Greek culture through the orient in the wake of his victorious armies. The development of Greek commerce, the multiplication of Greek trading posts through the Asia Minor had provided an economic basis for the unification of this region as part of Hellenistic empire. The infusion of Greek culture and ideas with the orient gave a new spectrum to religion and culture. Boundaries of culture and religion got erased. The orient was influenced by Greek ideas and the Orient was influenced Greek ideas and the oriental deities started to be worshipped in Mediterranean countries. New religious formations know as syncretism took place. Dominant feature of Hellenistic syncretism consists of teaching about how mankind could obtain salvation from death. Hellenistic science was heavily influenced by blending of knowledge from different cultures. Athens remained the center of philosophy whereas Alexandria became the center for science studies like mathematics, astronomy, biology and medicine.Fundamental modes of Hellenistic speculation was observed with the issue of ethics as the principle thrust to discover the crux of life and death and make attempt to achieve actual happiness of life. The focus on the issue of life and death and happiness gave rise to a number of schools like Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans so on.
(1) The Cynics: This school of philosophy was founded by Antisthens, a disciple of Socrates, around 400BC. Happiness according to Cynics does not depend on external factors but lies inside the man. One who pursues for happiness has nothing to do with prosperity, politics and welfare of others. The teachings of Antisthens were carried by his disciple Diogenes who used to live in a barrel and therefore his teaching came to be called 'barrel philosophy'. He believed that the 'accumulation' causes suffering and therefore the best way of life is to live with minimum items. If nothing is accumulated there is nothing to lose. Since good health and welfare are unrelated with happiness so they do not bother for others. It is said that once Alexander the Greek visited Diogenes who was enjoying the sunlight and asked if he could do something for him. He replied "yes" stand to one side you are blocking the sunlight which implies that he was no less happy than the emperor as he had no desire to gain anything from the king so no fear to lose anything.
(2) The Stoics: This philosophy was introduced in Athens by the Phoenician merchant Zeno about 310BC. Stoics always advocated to endure pain in life. Happiness is never available. It is always fleeting; the better is to endure whatever befalls in life. Christian philosophy massively influenced by stoicism. Cicero, an orator and statesman was also supposed to be a stoic. Seneca, a Roman playwright was also a stoic.
(3) The Epicurean: One of the disciples of Socrates named Aristippus propounded the ethics of pleasure as the objective of life. He defined "good" as pleasure "evil' as pain. In order to be happy in life one must avoid pain. It is also known as the philosophy of luxury and hedonism. According to this philosophy truth and luxury lies in material possession. Material possession gives satisfaction. According to this philosophy, one should not reason as when reason increases happiness decreases. The ancient epicureans lived in a garden and later on they came to be known as garden philosophers.
It is the period of Greek history, language and culture from the death of Alexander the great 323BC to the defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Antony by Octavian in 31BC. The Hellenistic period saw Greek culture spread through the Mediterranean and into the Middle East and Asia. Alexander the great the king of Macedonia defeated the Persians and Egyptian empire, linked the orient as far as India to the Greek civilization. It really initiated a new phase in human history. This phase is known as Hellenism covering almost 300 years, marked for the leading role of Greek language and culture. Before Rome entirely won over the Hellenistic kingdom about 50BC Rome too was a province of Greek culture. In the military advance of his Army Alexander had dreamed of spreading Greek culture through the orient in the wake of his victorious armies. The development of Greek commerce, the multiplication of Greek trading posts through the Asia Minor had provided an economic basis for the unification of this region as part of Hellenistic empire. The infusion of Greek culture and ideas with the orient gave a new spectrum to religion and culture. Boundaries of culture and religion got erased. The orient was influenced by Greek ideas and the Orient was influenced Greek ideas and the oriental deities started to be worshipped in Mediterranean countries. New religious formations know as syncretism took place. Dominant feature of Hellenistic syncretism consists of teaching about how mankind could obtain salvation from death. Hellenistic science was heavily influenced by blending of knowledge from different cultures. Athens remained the center of philosophy whereas Alexandria became the center for science studies like mathematics, astronomy, biology and medicine.Fundamental modes of Hellenistic speculation was observed with the issue of ethics as the principle thrust to discover the crux of life and death and make attempt to achieve actual happiness of life. The focus on the issue of life and death and happiness gave rise to a number of schools like Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans so on.
(1) The Cynics: This school of philosophy was founded by Antisthens, a disciple of Socrates, around 400BC. Happiness according to Cynics does not depend on external factors but lies inside the man. One who pursues for happiness has nothing to do with prosperity, politics and welfare of others. The teachings of Antisthens were carried by his disciple Diogenes who used to live in a barrel and therefore his teaching came to be called 'barrel philosophy'. He believed that the 'accumulation' causes suffering and therefore the best way of life is to live with minimum items. If nothing is accumulated there is nothing to lose. Since good health and welfare are unrelated with happiness so they do not bother for others. It is said that once Alexander the Greek visited Diogenes who was enjoying the sunlight and asked if he could do something for him. He replied "yes" stand to one side you are blocking the sunlight which implies that he was no less happy than the emperor as he had no desire to gain anything from the king so no fear to lose anything.
(2) The Stoics: This philosophy was introduced in Athens by the Phoenician merchant Zeno about 310BC. Stoics always advocated to endure pain in life. Happiness is never available. It is always fleeting; the better is to endure whatever befalls in life. Christian philosophy massively influenced by stoicism. Cicero, an orator and statesman was also supposed to be a stoic. Seneca, a Roman playwright was also a stoic.
(3) The Epicurean: One of the disciples of Socrates named Aristippus propounded the ethics of pleasure as the objective of life. He defined "good" as pleasure "evil' as pain. In order to be happy in life one must avoid pain. It is also known as the philosophy of luxury and hedonism. According to this philosophy truth and luxury lies in material possession. Material possession gives satisfaction. According to this philosophy, one should not reason as when reason increases happiness decreases. The ancient epicureans lived in a garden and later on they came to be known as garden philosophers.
Light in the
Dark Ages
Dark
ages is a term once used to describe the middle Ages, specially the early
middle Ages, which lasted from the AD 400s to the 900s. The term referred to a
supposed lack of learning in the period. Actually, the middle Ages were not
completely 'dark'. The period only seemed dark to scholar of the more advanced
Renaissance, and to a historians influenced by them. Any period may be called
Dark Age either because it is unknowable or it is saturated with pains,
sufferings and woes. Mostly below- mentioned points are discussed while
regarding middle age as a dark age.
1. Very rare documents
are available.
2. No literature, philosophy, science and technology were seen.
3. Theology overshadowed the intellectual exercise as a result faith ruled over reason.
4. Age of superstition, orthodox and fatalism.
5. Conflicting time between politics and religion, state and church, rulers and pope, Roman language and barbarian language, feudal lords and serfs.
6. Confession was a means of judgments.
7. Plato's academy was closed which means door to classical education was no more open.
8. People were suffering from different diseases without any proper treatment.
2. No literature, philosophy, science and technology were seen.
3. Theology overshadowed the intellectual exercise as a result faith ruled over reason.
4. Age of superstition, orthodox and fatalism.
5. Conflicting time between politics and religion, state and church, rulers and pope, Roman language and barbarian language, feudal lords and serfs.
6. Confession was a means of judgments.
7. Plato's academy was closed which means door to classical education was no more open.
8. People were suffering from different diseases without any proper treatment.
The fall of
Roman Empire
Before the fall of Roman Empire, people were enjoying peace and order in the country. They were enjoying pelf, power and prosperity but in 410 AD barbarian sacked Rome and devastated the countryside around it. Question may arise from where they came and attacked? In China, a great Wall was built by shin-Huang-it He made this wall to protect China from external enemies. He wanted to prevent enemies from entering into the China. But at the back part of the wall, some barbarians gathered and practiced horse riding, shooting, fighting, wrestling and doing so many other activities. On the other hand, the Roman Empire due to it's over prosperity began to indulge in luxurious activities being very passive. By taking advantage of that, the Goths and Visigoths attacked Rome in such a way that Rome came in their grip. The Roman emperors during the next 30s tried to deal with the Visigoths, offering them land to hold and live on, and giving them military tasks to perform. Most of these efforts were in vain, for the barbarous knew well that they were the stronger force. After the fall, Roman Empire split into two parts.
1) Constantinople
2) Rome
Roman had colonies over Asia Minor but now the colony was gone, and the post Roman European scenario is very pathetic. Before fall, Romans had law after fall, their society became lawless. State could not hold over its different parts or districts. The news of death and destruction became frequent.
Innocent people of the society became victim. 'Might is Right' became the slogan, mere anarchy was loosened in the society. In this Dark Age, some light of hope was there. It is said that this Dark Age is the beginning point of Christianity.
Before the fall of Roman Empire, people were enjoying peace and order in the country. They were enjoying pelf, power and prosperity but in 410 AD barbarian sacked Rome and devastated the countryside around it. Question may arise from where they came and attacked? In China, a great Wall was built by shin-Huang-it He made this wall to protect China from external enemies. He wanted to prevent enemies from entering into the China. But at the back part of the wall, some barbarians gathered and practiced horse riding, shooting, fighting, wrestling and doing so many other activities. On the other hand, the Roman Empire due to it's over prosperity began to indulge in luxurious activities being very passive. By taking advantage of that, the Goths and Visigoths attacked Rome in such a way that Rome came in their grip. The Roman emperors during the next 30s tried to deal with the Visigoths, offering them land to hold and live on, and giving them military tasks to perform. Most of these efforts were in vain, for the barbarous knew well that they were the stronger force. After the fall, Roman Empire split into two parts.
1) Constantinople
2) Rome
Roman had colonies over Asia Minor but now the colony was gone, and the post Roman European scenario is very pathetic. Before fall, Romans had law after fall, their society became lawless. State could not hold over its different parts or districts. The news of death and destruction became frequent.
Innocent people of the society became victim. 'Might is Right' became the slogan, mere anarchy was loosened in the society. In this Dark Age, some light of hope was there. It is said that this Dark Age is the beginning point of Christianity.
Reasons Behind
the fall of Roman Empire
1) Internal conflicts among the rulers.
2) Romans could not modify themselves according to changing circumstances of time.
3) Too much luxurious life style.
4) Changing power from emperor to pope.
5) Attack by barbarians as Anglo-Saxon attacked England, Goths, Visigoths attacked Italy, Austria etc.
6) Rise of Christianity which changed the philosophy of life.
1) Internal conflicts among the rulers.
2) Romans could not modify themselves according to changing circumstances of time.
3) Too much luxurious life style.
4) Changing power from emperor to pope.
5) Attack by barbarians as Anglo-Saxon attacked England, Goths, Visigoths attacked Italy, Austria etc.
6) Rise of Christianity which changed the philosophy of life.
Stars in the Dark Ages
Around the declining phase or in the division period of Rome Constantine the great was the ruler. One day, it is said that God gave him revelation in his dream. God asked him to conquer the world in the symbol of cross. Since then he became Christian and asked the soldiers to attach the cross in their uniform. In this way, he defused the Christian faith in different places. His religious beliefs were strong and lasting. He made Christianity the official religion of the empire, supported the church with rich gifts and, more important, wide privileges and immunities from taxation, and promoted Christians to high posts in army and bureaucracy. Another light in the middle age is St. Augustan who had no any interest towards religion became Christian due to the influence of his mother, Monica. He wrote the books named 'The City of God' and 'The city of Man'. He said the city of god is abstract, it is soul or spirit. We cannot see the city of God but can imagine it. The city of man is body and material world. Barbarian attacked the city of man not the city of God. They even cannot touch the city of God. He consoled Roman people by saying not to worry about anything lost because they have not lost the city of God where lies the truth. Hence, Augustine gave solace to the contemporary Roman people. In fact, Christianity was light in the Dark Age because in Christianity, there was possibility of reconstruction and salvation. Augustine was no philistine. He was acutely sensitive to the power of imaginative literature. He describes in his confession how Virgil moved him to 'weep for dead dido because she killed herself for love.' The very concept of imagination paved way for Renaissance. In Dark Age, all the things had gone bad but one thing was good that is the spread of Christianity. In the name of Christianity, Western world progressed a lot. Another light in Middle Age is St. Benedict who was born in Italy and came to Rome. He was very much unhappy at seeing corruption, especially of popes. He was angry with licentiousness of religious people so he resigned the post of Abbot and went to Mente Cassino and converted non-Christians into Christians. He wrote set of rules and laws. He established 12 monasteries. He undertook the task of organizing, setting, classifying and copying classical materials. He knew that the classical education is the store house of knowledge. His philosophy is called Benedictine philosophy, meaning teaching people in practical manner. The sense of practicality helped people to move ahead in the path of progression.
The Middle Ages: The Great
Experiment
The Great Experiment
Life during the centuries of the early Middle Ages was hard for almost all Europeans. Because of the devastation wrought by the barbarian invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries AD, they faced three major challenges.
1) The struggle for
subsistence: The first challenge was simply to survive. People were
economically very poor; they had to work hard to join hand and mouth. Their
living and wearing style was equivalent with primitive men. They lived in
primitive way, their dwellings were no more than caves cut into the
hillsides. People dressed in home spun clothing which they did not change
from year to year. Anyway, their life was very dark having extreme problem about
survival.
2) A world of enemies: Another challenge that people of Middle Ages faced was the perpetual threat from the enemies. Living in small, self-contained communities, lacking a powerful central authority or civil police, they were constantly attacked by pirates and marauding criminals. So the protection was full time job during middle Ages. Being attacked by outlaws, the leading social disease of the time was probably the main cause of death of medieval people. 3) The problem of god: God was the last of the three great medieval challenges, and the most important. Human beings had always been interested in God and had attempted to understand his ways. Greek and Roman had kept this interest under control but people of medieval period were supersaturated by God. The life became more God- centered than ever before in Western history. Mathematics and philosophy became focal points of Greek, politics and law became focal point of Roman, in the similar fashion, theology became the queen of science in medieval age.
The Principle of Theocracy
In theocracy, God rules. The question may be raised how God rules in theocracy? God rules through the divine law. In Judaism, God rules through Old Testament. People have to carry out his action in accordance with the prescriptions of Old Testament. In Islam, God rules through Koran which contains rules that people should obey, Koran regulates the activities of people. In Christianity, God rules through New Testament. Church interprets the Bible and says about do's and don'ts in life. In Hinduism, Puran guide our behaviors, similarly in Buddhism. Tripitak regulates the behavioral patterns of people. Empire and papacy During middle ages, the conflict between empire and papacy became frequent. Both wanted to be the superpower. Sometimes, popes rose in a higher position and even instructed the great empire. But at times, even they became puppets from the hands of kings, and empires. After all, the relative power of the empire and the papacy rose and fell during the centuries after 800. This hustle and bustle continued till the scandal of Babylonian captivity. In the 14th century, Popes set out to Rome then king ruled the senate by the grace of God which was quite different from theocracy. Monasticism: The word monasticism came from the Greek word 'monos' which means alone. The first Christian monastics were called ones who live alone because they lived by themselves in the desert. Monasticism is a special form of religious community life. People who practice monasticism separate themselves from ordinary ways of living so they can follow the teachings of their religion as completely as possible. Men who adopt a monastic life are called monks and live in a monastery. Monastic women are called runs and live in a convent. Monasticism became especially influential in Europe during the early middle ages. At that time, Europe had thousands of monasteries that were great centers of learning. Life in a monastic community involves work, prayer and meditation untouched by so-called worldly things. St. Benedict established 16 monasteries during middle ages. Scholasticism: This concept developed during middle ages, which came from school and scholar. It was actually a revival of classical education in middle ages. After the extension of this concept, schools were established. People were taught about philosophy, religion, faith and so many others related with education. This concept got influence from stoic and Neo-Platonic philosophy.
Millennial Fears, Postmillennial
Achievements
The number one thousand had always fascinated Christians. They feared the coming millennium for many reasons, not least because of the prediction laid down in the 20th chapter of the Book of Revelation, in which it was said that "an angel came down from heaven.... laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent which is the Devil. and bound him a thousand years.... and after that he must be loosed a little season." When the period thousand AD was approaching, European were afraid. They were afraid that Devil will rule in postmillennial. The just sat idle and all the time remembering God. They were thinking that something terrible might be happened in the year 1001. Thinking that they left working and eating. But at last, nothing actually happened as 1000 AD was over. They crossed this millennial fear without any danger. In the postmillennial era, people became hopeful, they began contemplating God. They started hankering after science, art, culture, civilization and Christianity with modification. People became a bit liberal and their liberty worked at the beginning point of renaissance. Middle age is called the age of experiment especially in the field of religion and philosophy. The philosophers of middle age tried their best to link philosophy with Christianity. St. Augustine Christianized platonic philosophy. He interpreted platonic version of philosophy with the light of Christianity. He wrote two books named (a) The city of God (b) The city of Man The city of God is like platonic world of idea which is eternal and transcendental whereas the city of Man is equivalent with the world of senses which is very mundane and fleeting. He gave consolation to the Roman people who had been ravished by barbarian, saying that barbarian can not do anything for the city of God that is the word of idea.Similarly, St. Aquinas, another theologian Christianized Aristotle. As Aristotle gave equal emphasis to both body and soul, same is done by St. Aquinas. For Aristotle: (1) This world is regulated by unmoved mover. (2) Women are unfinished men. For Aquinas this unmoved mover means God. That means God activates other to change not being moved himself. The story of Adam and Eve says that Eve was born out of Adams rib. According to Christianity, women are always inferior. In this connection, there is no different between Aristotelian philosophy and biblical philosophy said Aquinas. During middle age, Greek philosophy is continued rather in modified form. In the Middle Age, there arose problem regarding the issue of truth. Problem was created due to St. Augustine who said about two cities of God representing body and soul. How can there be one truth for body and another truth for soul? People in this way began to ask question people were in dilemma - in terms of choosing about truth. Boethius was born in Rome around 480 AD who was greatly impressed by Plato and Aristotle. He translated the works of Aristotle from Greeks into Latin so that people of the time could read Greek thoughts. He was of the opinion that God can be comprehended with human reasoning. The truth of one realm is same with another. For him what is truth in the city of God is the truth of city of man. So for him, there is single truth. Avicena is the great Muslim philosopher of the Middle Age who was widely influenced by Greek thoughts. He believed that reason is a primary source of deriving truth or understanding the God. There was also Pseudo-Dionysius who gave emphasis on the mystical vision of God. For him, God could not be understood by the application of human reason. The city of God is different from the city of Man. For him truth about the city of God differs from that of the city of Man. It is only faith from which we can understand God. So there are two different truths for both the cities. Averroes was Arabic philosopher and commentator who was influenced by Plato's idea. In the manner of Plato, he said there is only one truth that is Koran. He held that metaphysical truths can be expressed in two ways: through philosophy, as represented by the views of Aristotle, and through religion, which is truth presented in a form that the ordinary person can understand. When the Middle Age was about to end Dante wrote a book 'The Divine Comedy' which is in many ways a love poem praising Beatrice's mortal beauty, and her power to lead Dante to a vision of supreme goodness. She guides Dante through the 10 Spheres of heaven, where Dante meets the souls of the blessed. This book is dedicated to his beloved Beatrice whom he could not get in his life. |
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Throughout
the Renaissance period people started going in adventurous journey so as to
find new lands and new things. Invention of compass made easy for Europeans to
go in navigation to find new places. After the Renaissance period, European
people did not confine themselves within the limited territory rather they
began to travel different places and made relationship with other countries, as
a result different countries exchanged things facilitating the process of
business and other entrepreneur activities. In this way Europe began to reach
out of its limited place.
Mongol
Empire was the biggest Land Empire in history. Their territories extended from
the Yellow sea in eastern Asia to the borders of Eastern Europe. It included
china, Korea, Mongolia, Iran. It also occupied parts of Burma, Vietnam, Thailand
and Russia. Mongols were nomadic tribes lived in felt tents called yurts and
raised ponies, sheep, canals, oxen and goats. They ate mainly meat and milk.
Every Mongol man was a soldier and learned to ride and use a bow and arrow
skillfully. Genghis Khan, a famous Mongol and other nomadic tribes into a
superior fighting force and conquered northern China. His descendant Kublai
khan founded the Yuan dynasty reunited the China whose different parts were
conquered earlier.
Marco
Polo, an Italian trader and traveler, became famous for his travels in central
Asia and China. He wrote a book that gave Europeans some of their earliest
information about China. Perhaps he was first European having made relation
with the eastern countries. He also made cordial relationship with Kublai khan.
Earlier Marco Polo's Father Nicholas had met Kublai Khan in the due course of
trade-mobility. Marco and his Father remained at the court of the great khan
for at least fifteen years, during which they made a small fortune in trade and
had many glorious adventurous journeys. Nicolos' son Marco was very intelligent
that is why he was sent to the fact finding mission to the distant lands of
Empire. Marco worked and served Kubla Khan for so many years and at the last
stage of his life, he was looking forward to spending his time in his native
town Venice. As the time passed, Mongol power decreased and the Mings grow in
power and became manipulative. Now foreign policy of the Mings became quite
rigorous unlike Mongol China science decayed, trade became passive; the
maritime discoveries were ignored or forgotten. China sealed itself off for
nearly five hundreds years. Soon it became an exploitative rather than an
expansive nation. So now the curtain between east and west hanged. Marcopolo
and his father's journey to east became only legend. Westerner began to believe
that there are no worth- travelling routes to east polos knew the exact routes
both by land and sea. Their travel in east is the ample example or European
travelling to east.
Voyages of
Discovery
As
European did not give keen interest towards Asia, now they attracted to the
Arab. For centuries, husbandmen in northern Europe had been unable to keep more
than a few cattle alive during the long, cold winters as a result most of the
herds were slaughtered by their owners in every Fall. Without spices,
especially pepper, meat would spoil. Arabian world was storehouse of pepper,
European exchanged pepper with Gold which later on became very scarce. Through
traveler's, European people came to know that Gold was plentiful in the south
of Sahara desert. But the question was how to get there? Caravans crossed the
desert but Europeans were unwelcome as they met conflict with the Muslims. To
avoid conflicts, they were searching Westward route. Christopher Columbus fully
realized their dream and set out towards south so as to discover new lands. He
was not hankering towards the south on the basis of geo-study but just like
that. Actually, he had heard the name about India and its potentialities but
when he reached in West Indies (now) then he found red people and named them
Red Indians, thus he discovered America. He found the newly found land very
wonderful having saturated with natural resources and other source of things.
The land was actually full of gold, silver, tobacco, cotton and so many others.
These things were brought back to Europe and the world is now completely
changed. While going in navigation, he had gone in the ship named Santa Maria
and ultimately reached to the land in October 12, 1492. After that business of
southern part was monopolized by Portugal and Spain, and northern part was
monopolized by English and French. Slowly and gradually, Potential riches of
south and North America were realized by whole Europe and new concept of trade
was born. Then European people started bushiness not only of luxurious things
but also the things of everyday supply. In this way, Europe became successful
and rich in business sphere and at last became supreme power in the world. The
entire homage and credit goes to Columbus who gave outstanding contribution to
help Europe flourish.
Trade in Ideas
After
the manipulation of world trade by Europe, the trade in ideas also emerged in
the world. Knowledge of ideas, together with religious beliefs flowed both
directions from West to East and from East to West. And in the process of
interchange, ideas were transformed. Gunpowder, invented in China around 1000
AD, is a good example of the change. The Chinese used gunpowder to make fire
works and for other peaceful purposes. Arab mercenaries, obtaining gunpowder
from the Chinese, made the first guns. The Europeans perfected them. They
studied the art of using guns and canons with a unique intensity. By 1500,
European military strategy, both on sea and land was based on the concept of
acquiring and maintaining superior fire power. Even today, in the West, the
superiority of fire power over manpower and tactics has persisted as the
central idea of military thinking. European people with their extrovert nature
and their enthusiasm towards the enterprise developed their country in rapped
speed that the East Created a myth that West is really
"irresistible". Similarly, Westerner due to the distance and exotic
nature of East formulated a myth that East is very complex and mysterious. Thus
trade in ideas began between and among countries in the world.
The Invention of Scientific Method
Scientific
Method, the term denoting the principles that guide scientific research and
experimentation and also the philosophic bases of those principles.
Philosophy in general is concerned with the why as well as how of things but
science occupies itself with the latter question in a very rigorous manner.
The era of modern science is generally considered to have begun with the
Renaissance but scientific approach to knowledge can be observed throughout
the human history.
Three Characteristics of science 1) Objectivity: Objectivity indicates the attempt to observe things as they are, without falsifying observation in accordance with the preoccupied world view. They (scientists) do not let their feelings get in the way of their observations of real things. They often work in laboratories or in other areas where they can carefully control what they are working on. They always try to report their findings so others can check them out and then utilize them in their own work. They do not clean more than they can prove. They always concern about what is rather than 'What should be' so as to derive objective reality of the things.
2) Dealing with things not
emotion: Science deals almost exclusively
with things, not ideas or feeling, and with the external world and its
workings, not inner states and their workings, the human body is considered
to be a part of the external world, the soul is not. So, scientists work to
understand the body but not the soul. Most scientists doubt whether soul
exists or not. The solar system and the universe are also part of the
external world, so scientists also go through them.
3) Dealing with special way: Science deals with in a special way, employing special
methods and a language for reporting results that is unique to it. At first,
they make hypothesis that hypothesis is put under a test in a controlled
environment to find out whether it is valid or not. The environment to find
out whether it is valid or not. The environment must be carefully controlled
so that extraneous elements do not intrude to invalidate the experiment.
Scientific method also involves the interplay of inductive reasoning (reasoning
from specific observation and experiments to move general hypothesis and
theories) and deductive reasoning (reasoning from theories to account for
specific experimental results). By such reasoning processes, science attempts
to develop the broad law-such as Newton's law of gravitation that has become
part of our understanding of the natural world.
Aristotelian Science: Matter To invent scientific method, thinkers of the 17th century first had to deal with the world view of the greatest scientist having influence until that time, Aristotle. Two aspects of the world, in particular, concern us: matter and motion.
1) Theory of Matter: According to Aristotle, every material thing has
both a material and a formal aspect. Matter is a thing's potentiality and
form is what gives shape to matter. Aristotle found quite different between
the world below the moon and the world above the Moon. In the world below the
moon which he called sublunary world, there are four kinds of stuff out of
which things are made. These elements are fire, water, earth and air.
Aristotle said that a man has a good amount of earth in him which makes him
heavy, a good amount of water which produce his blood and other internal
fluids, a good amount of air which he breathes in and out, a good amount of
fire which gives him heat and is in a sense the essence of the life in him.
But in the world above the Moon, the planets and Moon are made out of fifth
element that he called Quintessence. They are also fusion of formal and
maternal aspects but their matter is quite different from that of below the
Moon as the Quintessence exists in them in pure form unlike in the sublunary
world.
2) Theory of motion: Regarding the theory of motion, Aristotle had different view about the motion in sublunary world and the world above the moon. The motion of material and immaterial things in the sublunary world is rest. The motion may be natural or violent, but it is seeking for a place to get rest. If the thing moves without external force that is natural state whereas if external force is applied to move the thing that is violent state. When a stone is thrown it drops to stop somewhere though the motion is violent, anyway it searches for place having got rest. Earth, water and to a certain extent air naturally seek a place that is downward, toward the center of the earth. Fire goes up, yet it is below the sphere of moon. Air, being mixture of fire and water, sometimes goes down and sometime up. But these elements or sublunary world seek a place for getting rest. In the world above the moon, everything is made out of Quintessence so the natural motion of celestial bodies is circular. They move in circle around the earth in every twenty-four hours. Aristotelian theory of motion gives a geocentric world picture which had lasting impact up to the seventeenth century.
The Revolt against Aristotle
During 17th century, Aristotelian, Theory was dismantled by so many scientists and thinkers. He was of the operation that all heavenly bodies move in circular motion around the earth. But Nicholas Copernicus dismantled that view by saying that it is not the sun that moves around the earth.. But at that time he did not say it defying as it meant going against the contemporary belief of the society. Another Danish astronomer Tycho Brache is famous for discovering a new star, having no existence in Aristotelian theory. He discovered that new star in 1572 and observed that over a period of months and in 1573 published a monograph on it that made him instantly famous and instantly controversial. Actually, new starts were not supposed to come into being in the Aristotelian and Christian universe. The world below the moon was chaotic, imperfect and unpredictably changeable. But in the world above the moon nothing is changed all the celestial or heavenly bodies' continued to reflect God's immutable love for the world and mankind. The contemporary theologians criticized Tycho Brache's monograph but Tycho did not believe that. William Gilbert by studying about lodestones produced the theory of magnetism. He asserted that due to the magnetic quality, planetary bodied come together the found the presence of magnetic force both above and below the moon. But as for Aristotle, in the world above the moon everything is made out of Quintessence, not anything like magnetic force. But for Gilbert, earth itself is big magnet. Gilbert also facilitates the heliocentric world view. Again Kepler brought great change in Aristotelian science. Facilitating the heliocentric world view, he said that heavenly bodies do not move in circular motion as Aristotle asserted but they move in elliptical motion. He also asserted defying Aristotelian concept that when planets are near the sun, they move quickly and vice versa. He also found the mathematical relation between the planets and the distance from the sun. He also believed in the concept of inertia. Galileo also opposed the Aristotelian concept that the surface of the moon is made out of Quintessence. When he saw the moon with the telescope then he found the surface of the moon as that of the earth having rock, mountains, and valleys etc, so, the moon itself is destructible, he said. He also put forward his argument by saying that it is the sun in the center and all planets, move round the sun. Though he dismantled the Aristotelian science, he was accused of being a Bible killer by contemporary theologians. At last he recanted whatever he said before. Rene Descartes, 17th century philosopher did not believe upon Quintessence as such, he always searched for certainty in everything. His concept was that everything must be doubted so as to derive truth. His famous dictum is: "I doubt therefore I think, I think therefore I am." He also believed that the material universe can be described in mathematical terms. He also believed that human mind always should free from any preoccupied notion and we should also reduce anything mathematically to reach in the heart of the thing. Newton also challenged Aristotelian view of the world. He got influence from Gilbert's magnetism, heliocentric worldview of Copernicus and Descartes' view about doubting. He proposed three laws of motion unlike Aristotle 1. Everything remains in rest or in motion unless the external force is used upon it. There is no natural state of rest as such as asserted by Aristotle. It is also called the law of inertia. This law discards the so-called Quintessence. 2. The change of motion is directly proportional to the change of force. 3. Each action has an equal but opposite reaction. These above mentioned laws by opposing Aristotelian science paved way for development of modern science. |
|
An Age of Revolutions
Relation
between different Revolutions and intellectual development
If we see the history of the world, we find different revolutions in different time period have brought great changes in the society and also given intellectual shape at the same time. Behind every revolution some ideologies have played vital role leading to the intellectual development. In the western history these revolutions have brought tremendous changes.
1. Industrial Revolution
2. Glorious Revolution 3. French Revolution 4. American Revolution Before industrial revolution, the life was so hard; people used simple machines to make their works quite easy. Socioeconomic side was very poor. Agro-based economy had not maintained the standard of life. There was no development of transportation and communication. After all, people were in very limited place. But after the down of industrial revolution, great changes emerged as a result life became comfort and smooth. Main activates forces for industrial revolutions are:- a) The use of new materials - iron and steel b) The use of new sources of energy - coal, steam engine, electricity, petroleum etc. c) Shifting of cotton- driven looms to machine-driven looms d) A new organization of work known as factory system which entailed increased division of labour and specialization of function e) Important development in transportation and communication etc.
Due
to these above-mentioned factors, industrial revolution became successful
which transformed human life very dramatically. It brought many social changes.
The middle class prospered and grow rapidly. Members of middle class owned
most of the factories; they hired the workers and operated the banks, mines,
railroads etc. They had the conception that business should be regulated by
supply and demand without the manipulation of the government. This idea
helped to form the idea of capitalism that is the economic system in which
the chief means of production are privately owned. During 1800 capitalism
soon spread to other industrial nations. Often factory workers were poorly
paid and had to work long hours under the unhealthful condition. In the
growing industrial cities, housing could not keep up with the migration of
workers from rural areas. Due to overcrowding of cities, many people lived in
extremely unsanitary condition. The society divided in two groups, extremely
rich and extremely poor. Some people believed that the evils or
industrialization resulted from capitalism. Socialism became chief motive for
such people. The socialists wanted to put all industrial productions under
the control of workers. From that basic idea Karl Marx, a German writer and
social philosopher developed the theory of communism.The industrial
revolution contributed to a great rise in imperialism during 1800s. The
industrialization helped many countries to acquire more and more colonies as
they eagerly sought raw materials for their factories, markets for their
manufactured goods and opportunities for investment. Africa and so many Asian
countries became colonies of rich country.Due to the expansion of
colonization, poor countries lost freedom and came under the extreme
domination. The concept of imperialism and colonization founded the path of
dictatorship which further helped to formulate other radical revolutions for
democracy and freedom. One of those revolutions is Glorious revolution of
England in 1688. It was basically a political revolution in which the king of
England was replaced by William of Orange and Mary peacefully. The authority
was changed without any bloodshed. To this revolution, Locke's philosophy
played vital role. He wrote a book handling the issues or property,
government and revolution. He has said in this book.
a) Property is the right of people b) People can earn for themselves 3) Their earning is legal
To
protect the legal property, the government is necessary. The function of
government is to safeguard the people's interest. If any government fails to
do so it is the right of people to overthrow such government. Law gives power
to the people. In England James 1 could not save people's interest therefore
British people overthrew him and placed William of orange and Mary
peacefully.
By the time when there was a Glorious revolution in England, America was under British colony. American people were under the grip of George III of England who had curtailed the freedom of American people. There was no representation of American people in the parliament. People had to pay unnecessary tax to the government. Due to the utter domination of British king, American people were frustrated and using slogans saying "No taxation without representation". Thomas Jefferson began speaking about 'dissolution' one of the Locke's key terms. Jefferson got so many things from the philosophy of John Locke. He said to the people that if the government cannot safeguard the inborn rights of the people that are (1) life (2) liberty (3) pursuit of happiness then it is the right of people to overthrow such government. The governments are instituted among men to secure the fundamental rights which are mentioned above. John Locke had said that government's first task is to secure property. The government is legitimate only so long as it continues to secure these rights and therefore continues to enjoy the consent of the governed. In the process of revolution, for independence, Jefferson said to the people: king George III has plundered our seas, ravaged out coasts, burnt our towns and destroyed the lives of people which became persuasive agents for American people and they declared the independence of America, later America won the war and overthrew the British government. The victory in turn confirmed the rightness of the English Lockean political doctrine and ever since it has become dominant on the world stage. No one in the last two centuries has been able to make a reasoned argument against the thesis that "it is the people who shall judge whether their government is legitimate or not". This war of independence paved way for the French revolution. All people of France were influenced by English and American Revolutions. Various social, political and economic conditions led to the revolution. These conditions included dissatisfaction among lower and middle classes. Another is legal divisions among social groups that had existed for hundreds of years which created dissatisfaction. According to law, French society consisted of three groups. 1) Members of the clergy made up the first estate 2) Noblemen 3) Rest of the people (peasants) Peasants formed the largest group in the third estate. Many of them earned so little that they could hardly sustain their family. The third estate opposed certain advantages of the first two estates. The clergy and nobles did not have to pay most taxes. The third estate, especially the peasants had to provide almost all the country's tax. Many members of the middle class were also troubled by their social status. They were among the most important people in French society but they were undermined by king and his Followers. The unmaintainable gap emerged between the groups. In 1788, the country was in financial problems, it was almost bankrupt. The parliament of Paris insisted that king Louis XVI could borrow more money or raise taxes by calling a meeting of the estates general. But ultimately tax was imposed on people of third estate. It became intolerable for the people as it was against true spirit of people. Then in 1789, may 5, French people marched ahead towards Versailles (French Royal Palace) and overthrew the authority. King Louise XVI and his wife along with their son were executed. Main slogan of the revolution was (1) liberty (2) equality and (3)fraternity. For the success of the revolution intellectual guidance of John Locke Montesquieu, Rousseau, Thomas Jefferson, Voltaire played active role. 1) Montesquieu argued that political freedom requires the separation of the executive, legislative and judicial powers of government. 2) Voltaire spoke out against government invasion of individual rights and freedom. 3) Rousseau declared in his book The Social contract (1762) that people have a duty to obey only legitimate power. The only rightful rulers are people, he said. |
The Nineteenth
Century Prelude to Modernity
The
nineteenth century is the beginning of modernity which has close affinity with
industrialization, migration, urbanization etc. Expansion of international
trade, urbanization of the peasant population of Europe and a stead rise in
literacy contributed the flourishment of modernity. During 19th century, the
world witnessed the rapid progress in science, technology, mass communication
on and so many other different fields. For the full-fledged development of
modernity, the following things facilitate too much.
1) The new
concept of money: Before 19th
century, there was feudal system in the society. There was agro-based economic
system. People were not well aware of money and its importance. Peasants were
the people who tilled the land and in return they got certain amount of grain
to sustain the life. The motto of life was 'Work is worship'. Kings and
noblemen of the 19th century used to keep soldiers for their security and in
return they used to get money, and thus importance of money began to be realized.
Before 19th century, priests also could not realize the importance of money;
they were satisfied with what people offered to the church. Before 19th century
two types of economic system were popular.
1) Retail trade
2) Domestic trade
Domestic trade says earn according to need, to earn more than necessary is sinful. Retail trade on the other hand says that earn according to desire. Now, retail trade is in functioning. Now in the 19th century, people had limitless desires, to meet those desires money became appropriate mean. Adam Smith, the great economist in his famous book 'Wealth and Nation' has valorized the importance of money and also said that everything is on sale. Labour experiences and expertise are such things which are always in sale so as to get profit. Now profit is realized only on money. So, modern concept of earning money began in the 19th century. To meet the limitless desires of human beings money only became important thing.
2) Steam power: Steam power revolutionized life and work and it brought nation together in war and peace. It created great wealth. Now some railroad magnets became richer than kings or emperor. Steam power also made work for millions. For which they were paid a wage that allowed them to go on living. The steam engine, together with its two offspring, the railroad and the dynamo also became a symbol of the power, magnificence cruelty and mystery of its time, which are the parts or modernity.
3) Machine Gun: The credit for the modern machine gun goes to Hiram Stevens Maxim who invented the first true machine gun which employed the recoil of the barrel to eject the spent cartridge and chamber another. The bullets were fed into the weapon, which was water cooled, by a belt that could contain thousands of rounds. Due to this modern automatic machine gun, great wars were waged as a result great havoc and destruction resulted in the world. Gun became an instrument of equalizer among countries. As Mao had said "power comes through the muzzle of gun". Power exercise became the part of modern life and so was activated by machine gun.
4) The Magic of Electricity: In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans C. Orested found that an electric current flowing near a compass needle will cause the needle to move. He was the first to show a definite connection between electricity and magnetism. In the early 1830's the English scientist Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry independently discovered that moving a magnet near a coil of wire produced an electric current in the wire. After the invention of electricity, the light dissolved the difference between night and day and masked the change of the seasons. For a quarter of a million years human kind had welcomed the spring because it brought not only warmth but also light. Winter was not just cold but also dark and any evils might lurk in the dark, that was the concept of priests but it became mere superstition when electricity brightened the night and made like the day. Electricity not only provided light and warmth but also activated for modern innovations. In this way electricity brought modernity in the world.
5) The End of Slavery: To live without any restriction and enjoy freedom with self-esteem is the real ethos of modern life. In the earlier age, slaves were considered to be inferior and they were not let themselves to realize as human beings. But in 19th century, great efforts were made against the slavery. Slaves should get equal treatment became the motto in America where blacks were treated as slave. It was the issue of slavery due to which civil war broke in America from 1861-1865. In 1865 slavery was legally abolished. Now equality and sense of brotherhood were raised by the blacks, Thus end of slavery and the arrival of democratic spirit with the fusion of equality and freedom, helped to have sense of modernity.
6) Photography: The introduction of photography revolutionized the arts or drawing and painting. It also changed the way we see things. Photography actually showed what the photographer had not seen with his naked eyes. It gave details of everything which we were not aware. So it changed our way of looking at things. Photography in a way facilitated modernity.
7) Faustian desire or boundless desire of human beings also helped for the orientation towards modernity.
8) Shocking to bourgeois: Bourgeois were shocked by three persons.
(1) Marx: He said that man is an economic unit, so he should not contract with anyone. He empowered the worker or proletarian against the bourgeois. He exposed the naked reality in front of workers that how bourgeois exploited the proletarians and enjoyed the surplus value and also activated them to more into the revolution against the bourgeois. In this way, he shocked them.
(2) Freud: Before Freud, people had ideal picture about man. Man was supposed to be rational creature. Freud developed the concept of unconscious and said sexual desire shapes our each and every action. By saying human being as animalistic, instinctual and lusty he dismantled the contemporary belief of bourgeois regarding man.
(3) Darwin: Contemporary bourgeois people thought man as descendant of god. But he said that man is descendant of monkey. Man has come in present condition through the evolutionary process. Man is a prototype of an ape which was very shocking for bourgeois orthodox Christian morality.
1) Retail trade
2) Domestic trade
Domestic trade says earn according to need, to earn more than necessary is sinful. Retail trade on the other hand says that earn according to desire. Now, retail trade is in functioning. Now in the 19th century, people had limitless desires, to meet those desires money became appropriate mean. Adam Smith, the great economist in his famous book 'Wealth and Nation' has valorized the importance of money and also said that everything is on sale. Labour experiences and expertise are such things which are always in sale so as to get profit. Now profit is realized only on money. So, modern concept of earning money began in the 19th century. To meet the limitless desires of human beings money only became important thing.
2) Steam power: Steam power revolutionized life and work and it brought nation together in war and peace. It created great wealth. Now some railroad magnets became richer than kings or emperor. Steam power also made work for millions. For which they were paid a wage that allowed them to go on living. The steam engine, together with its two offspring, the railroad and the dynamo also became a symbol of the power, magnificence cruelty and mystery of its time, which are the parts or modernity.
3) Machine Gun: The credit for the modern machine gun goes to Hiram Stevens Maxim who invented the first true machine gun which employed the recoil of the barrel to eject the spent cartridge and chamber another. The bullets were fed into the weapon, which was water cooled, by a belt that could contain thousands of rounds. Due to this modern automatic machine gun, great wars were waged as a result great havoc and destruction resulted in the world. Gun became an instrument of equalizer among countries. As Mao had said "power comes through the muzzle of gun". Power exercise became the part of modern life and so was activated by machine gun.
4) The Magic of Electricity: In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans C. Orested found that an electric current flowing near a compass needle will cause the needle to move. He was the first to show a definite connection between electricity and magnetism. In the early 1830's the English scientist Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry independently discovered that moving a magnet near a coil of wire produced an electric current in the wire. After the invention of electricity, the light dissolved the difference between night and day and masked the change of the seasons. For a quarter of a million years human kind had welcomed the spring because it brought not only warmth but also light. Winter was not just cold but also dark and any evils might lurk in the dark, that was the concept of priests but it became mere superstition when electricity brightened the night and made like the day. Electricity not only provided light and warmth but also activated for modern innovations. In this way electricity brought modernity in the world.
5) The End of Slavery: To live without any restriction and enjoy freedom with self-esteem is the real ethos of modern life. In the earlier age, slaves were considered to be inferior and they were not let themselves to realize as human beings. But in 19th century, great efforts were made against the slavery. Slaves should get equal treatment became the motto in America where blacks were treated as slave. It was the issue of slavery due to which civil war broke in America from 1861-1865. In 1865 slavery was legally abolished. Now equality and sense of brotherhood were raised by the blacks, Thus end of slavery and the arrival of democratic spirit with the fusion of equality and freedom, helped to have sense of modernity.
6) Photography: The introduction of photography revolutionized the arts or drawing and painting. It also changed the way we see things. Photography actually showed what the photographer had not seen with his naked eyes. It gave details of everything which we were not aware. So it changed our way of looking at things. Photography in a way facilitated modernity.
7) Faustian desire or boundless desire of human beings also helped for the orientation towards modernity.
8) Shocking to bourgeois: Bourgeois were shocked by three persons.
(1) Marx: He said that man is an economic unit, so he should not contract with anyone. He empowered the worker or proletarian against the bourgeois. He exposed the naked reality in front of workers that how bourgeois exploited the proletarians and enjoyed the surplus value and also activated them to more into the revolution against the bourgeois. In this way, he shocked them.
(2) Freud: Before Freud, people had ideal picture about man. Man was supposed to be rational creature. Freud developed the concept of unconscious and said sexual desire shapes our each and every action. By saying human being as animalistic, instinctual and lusty he dismantled the contemporary belief of bourgeois regarding man.
(3) Darwin: Contemporary bourgeois people thought man as descendant of god. But he said that man is descendant of monkey. Man has come in present condition through the evolutionary process. Man is a prototype of an ape which was very shocking for bourgeois orthodox Christian morality.
The World in
1914
By
1914 Europe had produced a civilization that became a high point of world
history. European civilization was imitated almost everywhere on earth and
dominated world commerce, finance, knowledge and culture. But the most
intelligent, cultivated and sensitive Europeans were not fully satisfied with
the achievements of their civilization. As a result the Europe involved in
bloody war which brought detrimental effect to the world peace. What may the
causes of war in 1914? What was wrong? These things are discussed below.
(a) The rise or
nationalism: It is the
nationalism that helped bring about the Great War. The sense of nationalism
gave the belief that loyalty to a person's nation and its political and
economic goals comes before any other public loyalty. That exaggerated form of
patriotism increased the possibility of war because a nation's goals inevitably
come into conflict with the goals of one or more other nations. Besides,
nationalistic pride caused nations to magnify small disputes into major issues.
(b) A build-up
of military might: A build-up of
military might occurred among European countries before World War I broke out.
The so-called nationalism encouraged public support for military build-up and
for a country's use of force to achieve its goal. By the late 1800's Germany
had the best trained army in the world other European countries followed
Germany's lead and expended their standing armies. Due to this military might,
Europe involved in war.
(3) Competition
for colonies: During
the late 1800's and early 1900's European nations carved nearly all of Africa
and much of Asia into colonies. The race for colonies was fueled by Europe's
increasing industrialization. Colonies supplied European nations with raw materials
for factories, markets for manufactured goods, and opportunities for
investment. This struggle for more colonies activated for World War I.
(4) A system of
military alliance: A system of
military alliance gave European powers a sense of security before World War I.
A country hoped to discourage an attack from its enemies by entering into a
military agreement with one or more other countries. In case of an attack, such
an agreement guaranteed that other members of the alliance would come to the
country's aid or at least remain neutral. Although military alliances provided
protection for a country, the system created certain dangers. Because of its
alliances, a country might take risks in dealings with other nations that it
would hesitate to take alone. If wars come, the alliance system meant that a
number of nations would fight, not only the two involved in a dispute. In a
way, military alliances created sense of hostility as a result countries
involved in war.
Economic
Divisions
The world in 1914 could be divided into four economic zones.
1. Industrial country: Japan, England, Germany, America, France, Belgium.
2. Agricultural countries like Sweden, Italy and Austria.
3. The third zone included a number of countries that had begun to industrialize but was still primarily pre-industrial. Russia was a leading example
4. The fourth economic zone included such Balkan nations as Greece and Bulgaria, the colonial countries and territories of Asia and Africa and most of the nations of Latin America, the group of countries that would be called the Third World.
Among the above-mentioned economic zones, first and second groups were most powerful on earth. They owned most of the world's capital and means of production. They controlled the world's politics and administration. Culturally speaking, they imposed their language, their customs, their sense of style and design and their cultural and artistic products on everyone with whom they came in contact. To sum up, the first and second groups owned most of the world's weapons, armies' naives and so many others.
The world in 1914 could be divided into four economic zones.
1. Industrial country: Japan, England, Germany, America, France, Belgium.
2. Agricultural countries like Sweden, Italy and Austria.
3. The third zone included a number of countries that had begun to industrialize but was still primarily pre-industrial. Russia was a leading example
4. The fourth economic zone included such Balkan nations as Greece and Bulgaria, the colonial countries and territories of Asia and Africa and most of the nations of Latin America, the group of countries that would be called the Third World.
Among the above-mentioned economic zones, first and second groups were most powerful on earth. They owned most of the world's capital and means of production. They controlled the world's politics and administration. Culturally speaking, they imposed their language, their customs, their sense of style and design and their cultural and artistic products on everyone with whom they came in contact. To sum up, the first and second groups owned most of the world's weapons, armies' naives and so many others.
The Study of
war
For thousands of years, men have studied war and have considered war to be perhaps the most interesting of all subjects to investigate. Humankind has always feared war and recoiled from its horrors while at the sometime people have been fascinated by the exaltation of war. As we know that for many millennia men and women have admired and often worshipped successful soldiers. The 19th country also studied about war and its aftermath. War was perhaps its leading subjects of investigation and from that intense intellectual work came many inventions valuable for peace as well as war. Alfred Nobel's dynamite is one example. The students of war studied about war and strategies regarding it. They also studied about how to control it. Before the first word war, war and its features were studied on theoretical basis but when they saw the factual war in 1914, they got more benefit to deal with war and its aftermath Freudian concept about war also facilitate to know more about war.
For thousands of years, men have studied war and have considered war to be perhaps the most interesting of all subjects to investigate. Humankind has always feared war and recoiled from its horrors while at the sometime people have been fascinated by the exaltation of war. As we know that for many millennia men and women have admired and often worshipped successful soldiers. The 19th country also studied about war and its aftermath. War was perhaps its leading subjects of investigation and from that intense intellectual work came many inventions valuable for peace as well as war. Alfred Nobel's dynamite is one example. The students of war studied about war and strategies regarding it. They also studied about how to control it. Before the first word war, war and its features were studied on theoretical basis but when they saw the factual war in 1914, they got more benefit to deal with war and its aftermath Freudian concept about war also facilitate to know more about war.
Colonialism: It refers to the rule of a group of people by a foreign
power. The people and their land make up a colony. The foreign power sends
people to live in the colony to given it and to use it as a source of wealth.
The rulers and the people of most colonies belong to different ethnic groups.
The rulers also have a more advanced technology than do the people of most
colonies. Colonialism dates back to ancient times. The Roman ruled many
colonies in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. The Greek had established their
colonies over the Asia Minor before the birth of Christ. During 1400s, European
nations developed vast colonial empires in Africa, Asia, North America and
South America. By the 1914, European countries like England, Germany, Belgium,
and France had colonized almost every past of the world. In the colonialism,
colonized are always manipulated in each and every spheres of life by
colonizer. Though there is a form of resistance from the side of colonized but
it does not make substantial effect for colonizer.
The Boer war
The Boer war is also called South African war, was fought from 1889 to 1902 between the British and the Boers of northern South African regions. It was really the war of resistance. African people in the beginning resisted the utter domination of British and also became successful. But later Boers had to surrender themselves before British domination in 1902 as Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener brought many more British troops into the area and fought with more advanced fire arms. After 1902 to till World War II British exploited African land, but after the Second World War decolonization began through out the world and Africa also got independence. The Boer war in one example of how colonizer country not only encroach the land but also used indiscriminately the natural resources of colonized country.
The Boer war is also called South African war, was fought from 1889 to 1902 between the British and the Boers of northern South African regions. It was really the war of resistance. African people in the beginning resisted the utter domination of British and also became successful. But later Boers had to surrender themselves before British domination in 1902 as Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener brought many more British troops into the area and fought with more advanced fire arms. After 1902 to till World War II British exploited African land, but after the Second World War decolonization began through out the world and Africa also got independence. The Boer war in one example of how colonizer country not only encroach the land but also used indiscriminately the natural resources of colonized country.
The character of 1914-18 War
The First World War became a terrible machine for grinding human beings into bits and pieces of wasted flesh. It most famous battles lasted for months, not hours or days and counted their casualties not in the thousands but in the millions. When the shooting stopped temporarily in 1918, a kind of frantic rejoicing ensued. This war brought the Great Depression, the worst financial panic in history, which extended over the whole world and made even war seem a desirable antidote. Again Second World War broke in 1939. America dropped two powerful atomic bomb in the Japanese land Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Millions of people lost their lives in the war giving the lesson that those who possess atom bomb become superpower and invincible. Then Russia began to make atomic bomb during post war ear in different nuclear clubs. In this way, it became the fact that equality in the muzzle of a gun.
The First World War became a terrible machine for grinding human beings into bits and pieces of wasted flesh. It most famous battles lasted for months, not hours or days and counted their casualties not in the thousands but in the millions. When the shooting stopped temporarily in 1918, a kind of frantic rejoicing ensued. This war brought the Great Depression, the worst financial panic in history, which extended over the whole world and made even war seem a desirable antidote. Again Second World War broke in 1939. America dropped two powerful atomic bomb in the Japanese land Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Millions of people lost their lives in the war giving the lesson that those who possess atom bomb become superpower and invincible. Then Russia began to make atomic bomb during post war ear in different nuclear clubs. In this way, it became the fact that equality in the muzzle of a gun.
Thoughts in war and Death
During devastating first and Second World War, the countries involved in war appeared to be very brutal at the cost of human sympathy and compassion. They began to hate the civilizations which they had aspired to get in the earlier age. After the publication of sensational article 'Thoughts for the Times on war and Death', the attitude towards war and death is changed. Freud said, civilization is just an illusion. People are not at heart very good. Men are not gentle creatures who want to be loved, and who at most can defend themselves if they are attacked, but they are creatures among whose instinctual endowments is to be reckoned a powerful share of aggressiveness. Sigmoid Freed made another point that in peace time, one can deny war or at least avoid mentioning it or even thinking about it. But in war, such denial becomes impossible. Human beings are always aware of death. Deep in our primitive, unconscious selves, we are very aware of death even if on the surface we deny it existence. We desire the death of our enemies and fear our own death. Freud also said that under the veil of civilization, there is an animalistic quality in human beings. As he said "Homo Homini Lupus" man is wolf to man. Man has always valorized war from the early time of civilization onwards, so we can not avoid war though to some extent we can control it.
During devastating first and Second World War, the countries involved in war appeared to be very brutal at the cost of human sympathy and compassion. They began to hate the civilizations which they had aspired to get in the earlier age. After the publication of sensational article 'Thoughts for the Times on war and Death', the attitude towards war and death is changed. Freud said, civilization is just an illusion. People are not at heart very good. Men are not gentle creatures who want to be loved, and who at most can defend themselves if they are attacked, but they are creatures among whose instinctual endowments is to be reckoned a powerful share of aggressiveness. Sigmoid Freed made another point that in peace time, one can deny war or at least avoid mentioning it or even thinking about it. But in war, such denial becomes impossible. Human beings are always aware of death. Deep in our primitive, unconscious selves, we are very aware of death even if on the surface we deny it existence. We desire the death of our enemies and fear our own death. Freud also said that under the veil of civilization, there is an animalistic quality in human beings. As he said "Homo Homini Lupus" man is wolf to man. Man has always valorized war from the early time of civilization onwards, so we can not avoid war though to some extent we can control it.
Causes of war
According to Freudian interpretation, men need war. War is proper Channel to outlet the suppressed murderous desires of human beings. War not only permits men to kill, cruelly, brutally but also they unconsciously wanted to do it. War in this interpretation is an unavoidable and irresistible, although supremely dangerous, temptation. Men and women feel drawn to it, and always have felt this way throughout history. Another reason discussed in the book is boredom created by money; in a sense this view was quite valid. The ruling bourgeois, the most cultivated classes together with the capitalists and businessmen, acted as if they were terribly bored. Money bored them, finally they could not endure the boredom any longer and they allowed the war to begin. One reality is that everyone wished the war had never started. But tendency of war from humanity cannot be wiped out only it can be controlled because by nature man is war loving creature.
According to Freudian interpretation, men need war. War is proper Channel to outlet the suppressed murderous desires of human beings. War not only permits men to kill, cruelly, brutally but also they unconsciously wanted to do it. War in this interpretation is an unavoidable and irresistible, although supremely dangerous, temptation. Men and women feel drawn to it, and always have felt this way throughout history. Another reason discussed in the book is boredom created by money; in a sense this view was quite valid. The ruling bourgeois, the most cultivated classes together with the capitalists and businessmen, acted as if they were terribly bored. Money bored them, finally they could not endure the boredom any longer and they allowed the war to begin. One reality is that everyone wished the war had never started. But tendency of war from humanity cannot be wiped out only it can be controlled because by nature man is war loving creature.
The 20th Century The Triumph of Democracy
Democracy is
a form of government, a way of life, a goal or ideal and a political
philosophy. The term also refers to a country that has a democratic form of
government. The word democracy means rule by the people. United States
president Abraham Lincoln described such self-government as 'government of the
people, by the people, for the people'. The citizens of a democracy take part
in government either directly or indirectly. In a direct democracy, the people
meet in one place to make the laws for their community. Such democracy was
practiced in the ancient Greek city state of Athens. Most modern democracy is
representative democracy. In a large communities, cities, states provinces or
countries it is impossible for all the people to meet as a group. Instead, they
elect certain member of their fellow citizen to represent them in making
decisions about laws and other matters.
The first
democratic governments were established in Greeks in the 5th and 6th century BC
but they could not sustain for a longtime. The true ethos’s of democracy were
dismantled by internal conflict, oligarchs or by the attack of external
enemies. The ancient Roman experimented with democracy but they never practiced
it so fully as did the Athenians. Roman political thinker Cicero contributed
the idea of a universal law of reason that is binding on all people and
governments everywhere. He suggested that people have natural rights which
every state must respect. During the middle Ages, Christianity taught that
everyone is equal before God. This teaching promoted the democratic ideal of
brotherhood among people. In Renaissance period, a new spirit individual
thought and independence developed. It influenced political thinking and
hastened the growth of democracy. The true democratic governments did not come
into existence until the revolutions of 17th and 18th centuries. The Glorious
revolution of 1688 in England paved the way to the government of laws. William
of Orange and Mary became the constitutional monarch. They enjoyed the power in
the prescribed limitation by law made by the parliament. After that Thomas
Jefferson facilitated for the development of democracy. By defying the despotic
government of King George III of England, he asserted that true function of the
government is to provide unalienable rights of people that are life, liberty
and pursuit of happiness.In the 20th century almost, every countries have
democratic system of government and people are exercising their freedom but
that are three competitions which are threatening to the democracy. These are
(1) Communism (2) Totalitarianism
(3) Theocracy
1) Communism: A concept or system of society in which the major
resources and means of production are owned by community rather than by
individuals. There is an enormous difference between communist theory and
communist practice when it comes to government. Question is always raised that
can the kind of communist government of which Marx and Lenin dreamed ever come
into existence? Perhaps not. In reality, true sense of communism can hardly be
established in the world. Communist leader wanted to give leadership to the
proletariat and also wanted the equal distribution of wealth and other
facilities leading to the egalitarian state. But ultimately in the name of
equal distribution of means of production the system change into dictatorship
of the proletariats. For instance, Russia is the first communist country under
the leadership of Stalin. During his time, the independent farmers or Kulaks
wanted to own their lands and sell whatever they produced, in the free market.
But Stalin regarding kulaks as a class gave emphasis to the collectivization of
agricultural land but they objected it, as a result either they had been killed
or deported to remote regions of Siberia. Finally the government of Stalin
supposed as being despotic. In practice communism has always been, in every
country that has existed, the bruited tyranny of a very small minority over the
vast majority of the rest of the citizens or subjects. Communist government
ever conceded that its tyranny was temporary as Marx and Lenin had also said it
would have to be. But in course of time under the guise or so-called temporary
tyranny, people suffered great tyranny. In the communist tyrannies of the 20th
century, revolution always seemed nearly impossible, since the ruling class
(minority) exercised control not only of the economy in all its aspect but also
of the police and the army. How could the people ever rise up and rule themselves
in such circumstances? But people in East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Yugoslavia and in Romania revolted against communist government. People tried
to rebel in China and they sought independence in Soviet Union in 1989 and
1991. Communist government came into existence in countries where the people
had always been subject to unjust, tyrannical rule. The Soviets imposed
communism to those people who were eager to be free but naive about freedom
meant. They were tricked cheated, defrauded by their communist masters who did
know about freedom. They concealed this knowledge from their people. But the
people still learned about freedom. The knowledge of freedom is like a raging
river, tumbling down the mountainside and inundating the plain. At last freedom
will flood the whole world. And the promise of communism that is full of
idealism rather than pragmatism will have died due to few men's narrow greed
for power. The principles of communism are very good from which Democracy has
taken so many things but still it failed because the power is in the hands of
minority in communism.
2) Totalitarianism: It is a form of
government in which the state has absolute control over almost every aspect of
people's lives. The individual is considered a servant of the state and is
allowed almost no freedom of choice of expression. A totalitarian government is
ruled by one political party headed by, in most cases, a dictator. The party
sets certain economic and social goals for the state, and it outlaws any
activity that could interfere with the achievement of these goals. Under a
totalitarian system, the government uses terror tactics to suppress individuals
or groups who oppose the state. These tactics are carried out by a secret
police force and the armed services. The government also uses censorship to
silence anyone who criticizes its policies. The media spread government
propaganda, and the schools teach absolute loyalty to the state. Various totalitarian governments have developed throughout
history. During the period of 1920's and 1930's, this form of government can be
found in the word's history. Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini, Nazi Germany
under Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. The members of a
totalitarian state can have no interest in the success of the state itself as
state does not capture the true spirit of the people. So, this form of
government has become failure in the world.
3) Theocracy: Theocracy, the rule of god was the great experiment tried
during the middle ages in the Christian west. Although some Theocracies
continued in existence for hundred of years, the idea never really worked, for
the simple reason that the will of god must always be interpreted by mortal,
fallible human beings. In this sense, theocracy is no better than the men who
govern in god's name. So, in Theocracy an absolute despot who may convince his
subjects that his world is the world of god, may enjoy more power than any
other kind of ruler. Many examples people ruling with absolute power and
authority over small religious communities have been noted during 20th century.
Jims Jones ordered more than nine hundred of his followers to commit suicide at
Jones town in 1978 on November. The rule of the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in
Iran is an example of a theocratic government in modern times. Since democracy
is anathema to theocracy, it is not surprising that the United States, the
leading example of democracy in the world is considered as a hostile force by
Khomeini and the Iranian Imams. At the present time, theocracy is no serious
threat to democracy. But some people are of the opinion that, theocracy is
always a threat it is an experiment whose failure during the middle ages should
not be considered as final. Democracy, in the 20th century has triumphed over its
three main competitor's communism, totalitarianism, and the theocracy. But
democracy must overcome other kinds of threats in order to satisfy the
universal human desire for which it stands. These threats are economic. The
desire for equality on the part of almost all men and woman today is the force
that drives democratic revolutions everywhere. But equality is not only the
political but a measure of economic equality is also needed. Economic equality
does not mean the possession by all of an equal amount of economic good but a
more equitable distribution of wealth so that all have enough to live decently
and a near absolute equality of opportunity. In democracy, this sort of
potentiality is also there.
4) World
government: There is
still another threat to just government (democracy). In the 20th century,
experiences with global war gave rise to a passionate commitment to the idea of
world government. The concept of world government gained new support at the end
of World War II in 1945 with the formation of the United Nations. During 1940's
the most prominent advocates of world government including Albert Einstein,
Bertrand Russell II, Robert Maynard Hutchins helped to organize one world
organizations, such as the United World Federalists. These advocates of world
government argue for international control of military force, especially
nuclear weapons, and for the power to arbitrate disputes between nations and
enforce resolutions to these conflicts. Critics say that the concept of world
government is simply an impractical dream. They claim that a world government
would require enormous administrative and coercive powers to enforce its will.
Ultimately, such a government would destroy the independence of nation, and the
freedom of individuals. This form of government also may create conflicts among
nations in different issues from time to time. In comparison to democracy,
these forms of government curtail freedom of nations while carrying out
anything.
5) Racism: Still another threat to democratic government is racism.
Racism is one of the most serious diseases of the human species. The narrow
concepts of racism, groupism, nepotism, favoritism have always given threat to
the liberalism of democracy. Still democracy has power to deal with them.
The 20th Century Science and Technology
This chapter
not only covers all the great theories and discoveries of the human race, but
also explores the social conditions, political climates, and individual men and
women of genius that brought ideas to fruition throughout history. This chapter
describes the smallest as well as the largest things in the universe so far we
have known.
The ancient's atomists had unknowingly discovered the western way of looking at things. When we look at the world we see many confusing things. But there are two ways to make sense of this confusion. In each of them we have to assume that there is something which we con not perceive in its own form, but which are necessary to see patterns in things which are not there unreality, but which are necessary to understand them. To see patterns and to behave as if they were real is a way of describing instinctual behavior. Instinctual behavior guides the behavior of animals, not of human beings. But human beings impose emotional character on nature. We suppose that there is a mind like our own in nature. Even the practical–minded behaviorist scientists cannot be free from anthropomorphism. It is not possible to assume the existence of the world without us. As philosophers tried to find patterns everywhere, so theologians also tried to see God everywhere. But a few arrogant philosophers tried to find a common thing in any two given things. For example, if we went on breaking a spider and a star into pieces, there must be a point where the pieces of both the star and the spider would not be the smallest units, but where the pieces of the matter itself would be the same.
Einstein was one of the greatest scientists of all
time. He is best known for his theory of relativity, which he first advanced
when he was only 26. He also made many other contributions to science.
Einstein's relativity theory revolutionized scientific thought with new
conceptions of time, space, mass, motion, and gravitation. He treated matter and
energy as exchangeable, not distinct, in so doing; he laid the basis for
controlling the release of energy from the atom. Thus, Einstein was one of the
fathers of the nuclear age. Einstein's famous equation, E equals m times
c-squared (energy equals mass times the velocity of light squared), became a
foundation stone in the development of nuclear energy.On Aug. 2, 1939, Einstein
wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, explaining that it might be
possible to build an atomic bomb. Einstein urged the President to provide
governmental help for the study of the release of nuclear energy. Einstein also
wanted the President that Nazi Germany might already be trying to build an
atomic bomb. His letter helped set the United States on the long, difficult,
and costly path that totally led to the production of an atomic bomb in
1945.Einstein published three papers. Each of them became the basis of a
knowledge that could be thought of as a stream of tiny particles. Scientists
before Einstein had discovered that a bright beam of light striking a metal
caused the metal to release electrons, which could form an electric current.
They called this phenomenon as long as they assumed that light travelled only
in waves showed that when quanta of light energy strike atoms in a metal, the
quant, force the atoms to release electrons.In a second paper, Einstein
presented the special theory of relativity. In this paper, he showed how the
theory demonstrated the relativity of time, a previously unimaginable idea.
Einstein's name is most widely known for this theory. In a study published in
1905, Einstein showed the equivalence of mass and energy, expressed in the
famous equation E equals m times c- squared. The third major paper of 1905
concerned Brownian motion, an irregular motion of microscopic particles
suspended in a liquid or gas. It confirmed the atomic theory of matter.Einstein
was an ardent pacifist. After the war, he became an equally determined
supporter of word government. He insisted that peace among nations could be
maintained in the atomic age only by bringing all people together under a
system of world law.Although he was not associated with any orthodox religion,
Einstein's nature was deeply religious. He felt that belief in a personal God
was too specific a concept to be applicable to the being at work in this
universe, but he never beloved that the universe was one of chance of chaos.
The universe to him was one of absolute law and order. He once said, "God
may be sophiscated, but He is not malicious."Heredity is the passing on of
biological characteristics from one generation to the next. The process of
heredity occurs among all living thing-animals, plants, and even such
microscopic organisms as bacteria. Heredity explains why a human mother always
has a human baby and why a mother dog has puppies-not kittens. It is also the
reason offspring look like their parents. Through heredity, living things
inherit characteristics, often called traits, from their parents. You resemble
your parents because you inherited you hair colour, nose shape, and other
traits from them. All organisms consist of cells. Tiny biochemical structures
inside each cell called genes carry traits from one generation to the next.
Genes are made of a chemical called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). They are
strung together to form long chains of DNA in structures known as
chromosomes.Genes are like blueprints for building a house, except that they
carry the plans of building cells, tissues, organs, and bodies. They have the
instructions for making the thousands of chemical building, blocks in the body.
These building blocks are called proteins. Some proteins are responsible for
the size, shape, and structure of the parts ranking up your chemical reactions
that occur constantly in your body and in all other living things. The process
by which the cell makes a protein according to the instructions carried by a
gene is known as gene expression.Genes have powerful effect, but they do not
control all of life. Most characteristics result from a combination of heredity
and environment. For example, you may have inherited a talent for playing the
piano. But you will not be able to play unless you take lessons and practice.
The talent is hereditary. The lessons and practice are environmental.The basic
laws of heredity were formulated during the mid- 1800's by an Austrian botanist
and monk named Gregor Mendel. Mendel based his Mendel published the results of
his experiments in 1866, his work went unnoticed until 1900.Mendel's
experiments laid the foundation for the scientific study of heredity-have
learned much about why human beings and other living things look and behave the
way they do. These scientists have also begun to uncover the causes of
hereditary diseases and to develop ways to treat them. Today, genetics has
several specialized branches. Molecular genetics, for example, involves the
study of the chemical nature and activities of genes.In human being and most
other organisms, chromosomes are found in the part of a cell known as the
nucleus. The ancient's atomists had unknowingly discovered the western way of looking at things. When we look at the world we see many confusing things. But there are two ways to make sense of this confusion. In each of them we have to assume that there is something which we con not perceive in its own form, but which are necessary to see patterns in things which are not there unreality, but which are necessary to understand them. To see patterns and to behave as if they were real is a way of describing instinctual behavior. Instinctual behavior guides the behavior of animals, not of human beings. But human beings impose emotional character on nature. We suppose that there is a mind like our own in nature. Even the practical–minded behaviorist scientists cannot be free from anthropomorphism. It is not possible to assume the existence of the world without us. As philosophers tried to find patterns everywhere, so theologians also tried to see God everywhere. But a few arrogant philosophers tried to find a common thing in any two given things. For example, if we went on breaking a spider and a star into pieces, there must be a point where the pieces of both the star and the spider would not be the smallest units, but where the pieces of the matter itself would be the same.
Chromosomes are tiny threadlike structures made largely of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes generally occur in pairs. The two chromosomes in a pair resemble each other in size and shape. They also contain similar hereditary information.Genes are the basic units of heredity. Each gene consists of a section of an extremely long DNA molecule found in a chromosome. Individual members of a species differ widely from one another in their genetic markup and therefore in their traits. You may look like your parents, but you are not an exact duplicate of either of them. You inherited half your genes from your father and half from your mother. Nor do you look exactly like your classmates, even though you and your classmates are all human beings. Scientists refer to the differences among members of a species as genetic variation. This section discusses the main sources of diversity among individual members of a species-mutation and genetic recombination.The genes of all living things except some viruses are composed of DNA, which is often referred to as the hereditary. DNA is a thin, chainlike molecule made up of smaller chemical units called nucleotides. A nucleotide in DNA is composed of a sugar known as deoxyribose, an nucleotide in DNA is composed of a sugar known as deoxyribose, an oxygen–phosphorus chemical group called a phosphate, and a Nitrogen containing compound known as a base. The sugar and phosphate are the same in all DNA nucleotides, but the bases vary. Here are four DNA bases adenine (A), guanine (G) thymine (T), and cytosine (C)
DNA consists
of two chains that coll around each other in a shape called a double helix. The
double helix resembles a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder consist of the
linked sugars and phosphates of the nucleotides. Each rung is made up of two
paired bases.
The bases of a DNA molecule are paired in a specific way to form combinations known as base pairs. There are A-T and G-C bace pairs. Wherever there is adeninein one strand, there is thymine in the opposite strand. Wherever there is guanine in one strand, there is cytosine in the other, other combinations are extremely rare. Because of this specific pairing of the bases, scientists say the two DNA strands are complementary. The sequence of bases in one strand determines the two DNA strands are complementary.
The bases of a DNA molecule are paired in a specific way to form combinations known as base pairs. There are A-T and G-C bace pairs. Wherever there is adeninein one strand, there is thymine in the opposite strand. Wherever there is guanine in one strand, there is cytosine in the other, other combinations are extremely rare. Because of this specific pairing of the bases, scientists say the two DNA strands are complementary. The sequence of bases in one strand determines the two DNA strands are complementary.
The
sequence of bases in one strand determines the sequence of bases in the
other.Most of the cells in your body divide from time to time. When you get a
cat, for example, the skin cells around the wound begin to divide to make new
skin to repair the damage. Each of the new daughter cells produced by cell
division has the same DNA as the old cells. The process by which exact copies
of DNA are made during cell division is called replication. The accurate
replication of DNA is one of the essential characteristics of the hereditary
material. Without it, daughter cells would be genetically different from each
other and from the parent cell. Your genetic makeup, and therefore your
physical characteristics, would be constantly changing as your cells divided.
The complementary nature of the two DNA strands enables a cell to make exact
copies of its DNA. Before the cell divides, sections of the two original joined
strands of a DNA molecule split lengthwise, separating the base pairs. The
process is similar to what would happen ........split down the middle,
separating its rungs. Each of the DNA strands, which resemble a half ladder,
then picks up free nucleotides from the cell nucleus. The bases in the free
nucleotides, with their attached sugars and phosphates, pair with the matching
bases in the original DNA strands. A's pair with T's, T's with A's, G's with
C's, and C's with G's. In this way, two double-stranded DNA ladders are
produced that have exactly the same base sequence as the parent DNA. When the
cell divides, each of the new daughter cells receives identical DNA molecules.
No one knows
whether the universe is finite or infinite in size. Studies of the sky indicate
that there are at least 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe.
Measurements show that the most distant galaxies observed to date are about 12
billion to 16 billion light-years from the earth. They are observed in every
direction across the sky. Astronomers determine the distance to a faraway
object by measuring the object's red shift. This phenomenon occurs when an
object that is moving away from an observer emits (gives off) light. Red light
has the longest wavelength of any visible light-that is the longest distance
between successive wave crests. The observer sees light from a recoding object
or wavelengths longer than those that would be seen by an observer who
wavelengths linger than those that would be seen by an observer who was moving
with the object. The observed change in wavelength of red shift. The amount of
red shift depends upon the speed at which the object recedes from the observer.
The lager the red shift is, the more rapidly the object is moving away. Among
the most distant objects ever observed are tremendously bright objects called quasars.
Individual quasas are as much as 1, 000 times brighter than the entire Milky
Way. No one knows the structure of quasars, because a quasar appears, point
like in a photographic image.
However, a quasar seems likely to contain a giant
black hole in its centre. However, a quasar seems likely to contain a giant
black hole in its centre. A black hole is an object whose gravitational field
is so strong that nothing-not even is an object whose gravitational force is so
strong that nothing-not even light-can escape from it. Matter is apparently
falling into the massive black hole in the centre of the quasar, radiating
energy before being swallowed up. Astronomers interpret the red shifts that
have been measured as evidence that the universe is expanding. That is, every
part of the universe is moving away from every other part. The matter within a
particular object does not expand however. For example, the stars in a galaxy
do not move away from one another because gravity holds the galaxy together.
But the galaxies are moving away from one another. The expansion of the
universe is a basic observation that any successful theory of the universe must
explain. Galaxy is a system of stars, dust, and gas held together by gravity.
Galaxies are scattered throughout the universe. They range in diameter from a
few thousand to half a million light-year is the distance light travels in a
year-about 5.88 million....... kilometers) Large galaxies have more than a
trillion stars. Small galaxies have more than a billion.
The
solar system is in a galaxy called the Milky Way. The solar system lies halfway
to the edge of this galaxy. Only three galaxies outside the Milky Way are
visible from the earth without a telescope. These three galaxies appear as
small, hazy patches of light.
Galaxies are distributed unevenly in space. Some galaxies are found alone in space, but most are grouped in formations called clusters. Clusters of galaxies range in size from a few dozen members to several thousand.
Galaxies are distributed unevenly in space. Some galaxies are found alone in space, but most are grouped in formations called clusters. Clusters of galaxies range in size from a few dozen members to several thousand.
In quantum
theory, Heisenberg uncertainty principle is a fundamental limit on the
precision of simultaneous measurements, irrespective of the quality of the
measuring equipment used; stated by Werner Heisenberg in both claimed the
safety lamp as theirs, and Charles Wheatstone and Edward Davy were very close
with the development of their telegraphs. Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray
lodged patent claims on the telephone on the very same day, and J.J. Thomson
was barely the first in the race to discover the electron.
Physicists who know the history of their subject say that if Einstein had not proposed special relativity when he did, one of several other physicists would have done so within a year. If Hendrik Loreniz missed out, they say, Jean Perrin or somebody else would have cracked it, one year. It was in the air, you see. Special relativity's time had come, but at the time, it was just one of Einstein's interests.
In 1905, he published three distinct and separate papers on three distinct and separate topics. He gave us his first ideas on relativity that year, but he also explained the photo-electric effect, and even on relativity that year, but he also explained the photo-electric effect, and even fewer know that he explained Brownian movement or motion. At the time, the other two papers were more exciting, for his work on the photo-electric effect led to a much better understanding of concrete practical physics, shed light on the work of Max Planck, and introduced for the first time the notion of wave particle duality.
Of course, his work on relativity has proved to be of greater lasting importance but at the time, even Einstein could not be confident that his ideas would prove to be right, and he commented wryly that"..... if call me a Swiss citizen, and the French will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved right, the Germans will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved wrong, the French will call me Swiss, the Swiss will call me a German, and the Germans will call me a Jew." Considering that, and seeing he spent his later years in the United States of America, Einstein is probably better regarded as a world scientist.
Physicists who know the history of their subject say that if Einstein had not proposed special relativity when he did, one of several other physicists would have done so within a year. If Hendrik Loreniz missed out, they say, Jean Perrin or somebody else would have cracked it, one year. It was in the air, you see. Special relativity's time had come, but at the time, it was just one of Einstein's interests.
In 1905, he published three distinct and separate papers on three distinct and separate topics. He gave us his first ideas on relativity that year, but he also explained the photo-electric effect, and even on relativity that year, but he also explained the photo-electric effect, and even fewer know that he explained Brownian movement or motion. At the time, the other two papers were more exciting, for his work on the photo-electric effect led to a much better understanding of concrete practical physics, shed light on the work of Max Planck, and introduced for the first time the notion of wave particle duality.
Of course, his work on relativity has proved to be of greater lasting importance but at the time, even Einstein could not be confident that his ideas would prove to be right, and he commented wryly that"..... if call me a Swiss citizen, and the French will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved right, the Germans will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved wrong, the French will call me Swiss, the Swiss will call me a German, and the Germans will call me a Jew." Considering that, and seeing he spent his later years in the United States of America, Einstein is probably better regarded as a world scientist.
1. How is the problem of life solved by the science of Heredity?
Genetics is the science of heredity. It originated with the discovery by Gregor Mendel that heredity characters are determined by factors transmitted without change and in one generation to the next. The term was coined by British biologist William Bateson in 1907.Genetics occupies a unique position. Its principles and mechanisms extend throughout almost all biology, and it ties together all branches that deal with variation- the molecular structure of cells and tissues, the development of individuals, and the evolution of population. The mechanisms of genetics are applied to make, in the laboratory, substances formerly obtainable only from organisms (e.g. vaccines, hormones), and the time may not be far distant when genetic errors responsible for disease may be correctable.
Genetics occupies a unique position. Its principles and mechanisms extend throughout almost all biology, and it ties together all branches that deal with variation- the molecular structure of cells and tissues, the development of individuals, and the evolution of populations. The mechanisms of genetics are applied to make, in the laboratory, substances formerly obtainable only from organisms (e.g. vaccines, hormones), and the time may not be far distant when genetic errors responsible for disease may be correctable.
Genetic engineering is the formation of artificial combinations of heritable material. Nucleic acid molecules, produced chemically or biologically outside the cell (e.g. by recombinant DNA technology), are inserted into a carrier (such as a virus or bacterial plasmid) so as to allow their incorporation into a host organism in which they do not naturally occur, but in which they are capable of continued propagation. Genetic engineering has many uses.
DNA sequences can be produced in large amounts, and with great purity, so that their structure can be analyzed. Biological con-pounds can be produced industrially (e.g. human insulin, blood clotting factor, interferon,) New synthetic ....... can be incorporated into plants (potentially available for nitrogen fixation). Ultimately it may be possible to excise genes responsible for hereditary disease and replace them with normal DNA sequences.
The implications of genetic engineering have led to public debate, and in most countries there is government control over recombinant DNA work. There is also some public fear that the presence of foreign genetic elements may adversely affect the normal functions of cells.
To counter this, safety measures are used to minimize the risk of spread of engineered organisms. Physical containment makes use of microbiological techniques and equipment designed to prevent escape. Biological containment minimizes the chance of a host organism surviving outside the laboratory, usually by using host cells carrying deleterious mutations which permit their growth only under restricted artificial laboratory conditions.
2. How large is the universe?
There are many galaxies in the universe, and many stars in a galaxy. Some stars are brighter than the Sun; others, fainter. Much less light is received from the stars than from the sun because the stars are all much farther away. Indeed, they appear densely packed in the Milky Way only because there are so many of them. The actual separations of the stars are enormous, so large that it is conventional to measure their distances in are enormous, so large that it is conventional to measure their distances in units of how far light can travel in a given amount of time. The speed of lihgt (in a vacuum) equals 3 1010 cm/sec (centimeters per second); at such a speed, it is possible to circle the Earth seven times in a single second. Thus in terrestrial terms the Sun, which lies 500 light-seconds from the Earth is very far away; however, even the next closest star, Proxims Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light-years (4.1? 1010 cm), is 270,000 times father yet. The starts that lie on the opposite side of the Milky Way from the Sun have distances that are on the order of 100,000 light-years, which is the typical diameter of a large spiral galaxy.
There are many galaxies in the universe, and many stars in a galaxy. Some stars are brighter than the Sun; others, fainter. Much less light is received from the stars than from the sun because the stars are all much farther away. Indeed, they appear densely packed in the Milky Way only because there are so many of them. The actual separations of the stars are enormous, so large that it is conventional to measure their distances in are enormous, so large that it is conventional to measure their distances in units of how far light can travel in a given amount of time. The speed of lihgt (in a vacuum) equals 3 1010 cm/sec (centimeters per second); at such a speed, it is possible to circle the Earth seven times in a single second. Thus in terrestrial terms the Sun, which lies 500 light-seconds from the Earth is very far away; however, even the next closest star, Proxims Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light-years (4.1? 1010 cm), is 270,000 times father yet. The starts that lie on the opposite side of the Milky Way from the Sun have distances that are on the order of 100,000 light-years, which is the typical diameter of a large spiral galaxy.
If the
kingdom of the star seems vast, the realm of the galaxies is larger still. The
nearest galaxies to the Milky Way system are the large and small Magellanic
clouds, two irregular satellites of the Galaxy visible to the naked eye in the
Southern Hemisphere. The Magellanic Clouds are relatively small (containing
roughly 109 stars) compared to the Galaxy (with some 1011 stars), and they lie
at a distance of about 200,000 light-years. The nearest large galaxy comparable
to the Galaxy is the Andromeda galaxy (also called M31 because it was the 31st
entry in a catalogue of astronomical objects compiled by the French astronomer
Charles Messier in 1781), and it lies at a distance of about 2,000,000
light-years. The Magellanic Clouds, the Andromeda galaxy, and the Milky Way
system all are part of am aggregation of two dozen or so neighboring galaxies
known as the Local Group. The Galaxy and M31 are the largest members of this
group.The Galaxy and M31 are both spiral galaxies and they airy among the
brighter and more massive of all spiral galaxies. The most luminous and
brighter galaxies, however, are not spirals but rather super giant elliptical
(also called CD galaxies by astronomers for historical reasons that are not
particularly illuminating). Elliptical galaxies have radish shapes rather than
the flattened distributions that characterize spiral galaxies, and they tend to
occur in rich clusters (those containing thousands of members) rather than in
the loose groups favored by spirals.
The brightest member galaxies of rich clusters have
been detected at distances exceeding several thousand million light-years from
the Earth. The branch of learning that deals with phenomena at the scale of
many millions of light-years is called cosmology- term derived from combining
two Greek words, Cosmos, meaning "order," "harmony," and
"the world," and logos, signifying "word" or
"discourse." Cosmology," is, in effect, the study of the
universe at large. A dramatic new feature, not present on small scales,
emerges when the universe is viewed in the large-namely, the cosmological
expansion. On cosmological, galaxies (or, at least, clusters of galaxies)
appear to be racing away from one another with the apparent velocity of
recession being linearly proportional to the distance of the object.
This relation is
known as the Hubble law (after its discoverer, the American astronomer Edwin
Powell Hubble). Interpreted in the simplest fashion, the Hubble law
implies that roughly 1010 years ago, all of the matter
....................state and that everything then exploded in a "big
bang" the signature of the ...............in the galaxies of stars that
formed out of the expanding debris of matter. Strong scientific support for
this interpretation of a big bang origin of the universe comes from the
detection by radio telescopes of a steady and uniform background of microwave
radiation. The cosmic microwave background is believed to be a ghostly remnant
of the fierce light of the primeval fireball reduced by cosmic expansion to a
shadow of its former splendor but still pervading every corner of the known
universe.
3. Explain the Big Bang theory of creation?
Everything in the Universe - the hundreds of billions of galaxies, all of the planets, every pebble, grain of sand, man, woman, child animal plant, bacterium, indeed every atom and bit of energy - were once compressed together in an object much, much smaller than the full stop at the end of this sentence.
Religions say nothing concrete about how the Universe began. Much that is said either conflicts with the available scientific evidence of is accepted simply on the basis of faith. For example, in 1650 Archbishop Usher of Ireland (1581-1656) calculated, on the basis of his readings of the Bible, that the Earth was certain now that the Earth is well over four billion years old, and the Cosmos is unquestionably older than the Earth.
Scientists make what observations they can within their sphere of existence and they make logical deductions based on the evidence. The Big Bang theory for the origin of the Universe provides the clearest explanation of the scientific data that makes sense.
The origin of the Universe is a fundamental question. There cannot be many people who have not questioned where everything came from. The Cosmos is vast-too large for the imagination to comprehend-yet as one goes back in time to its beginning, everything becomes simplified and the Universe becomes easier for the mind to grasp.
It has been said that humankind will have a more complete understanding of the origins of the Universe than of a living cell. It is as if the products of the evolution and differentiation of the Universe are far more complex than the Universe itself just as an egg is simplified than the animal into which it develops.
Whether any moral values can be gleaned from the Big Bang theory remains to be been. What is clear is that every atom in the Cosmos had the same origin, and once upon a time everything was as one.
Until the twentieth century, scientists generally considered the Universe to be infinite and static. However, several discoveries together strengthened the idea that the Universe is not static and that it has expanded over a period of fifteen to twenty billion years from an infinitesimally small and hugely dense point.
Modern cosmology began with Einstein, whose General. Theory of Relativity provided a mathematical model that predicted a non-static Universe. Unfortunately, even Einstein was prone to adhering to some established beliefs, and he changed his mathematical equations, forcing them to fit a static Universe.
It was another ten years before evidence was obtained that the Universe is indeed expanding and the idea of a non-static Universe was taken seriously by physicists.
Once it became clear that the mathematical equations of theoretical physicists could provide models of the Universe and that many of these Earth, physicists realized that the secrets of the Universe, its structure, behavior and origins were quite within their grasp, and cosmology became a science in its own right.
4. What is Heisenberg's uncertainly principle?
Heisenberg uncertainty Principle was articulated (1927) by the German physicist Heisenberg. It states that the position and the velocity of an object con not be measured exactly, at the same time, even in theory. The very concepts of exact position and exact velocity together, in fact, have no meaning in nature.
Ordinary experience provides no clue of this principle. It is easy to measure both the position and the velocity of, say, an automobile, because the uncertainties implied by this principle for ordinary objects are too small to be observed. The complete rule stipulates that the product of the uncertainties in position and velocity is equal to or greater than a tiny physical quantity, or constant (about 1034 joule-second, the value of the small masses of atoms and subatomic particles does the product of the uncertainties become significant.
Any attempt to measure precisely the velocity of a subatomic particle, such as an electron, will knock it about in an unpredictable way, so that a nothing to do with inadequacies in the measuring instruments, the technique, or the observer, it arises out of the intimate connection in nature between particles and waves in the realm of sub atomic dimensions.
Every particle has a wave associated with it, each particle actually exhibits wavelike behavior. The particle is most likely to be found in those places where the undulations of the wave are greatest, or most, intense. The more ill defined becomes the wavelength, which in turn determines, the more ill defined becomes the wavelength, which in turn determines the moment of the particle. So a strictly localized wave has an indeterminate wavelength, its associated particle wave having a well-defined wave light on the other hand, is spread out; the associated particle, which having a rather precise velocity, may be almost anywhere. A quite accurate measurement of one observable involves a relatively large uncertainty in the measurement of the other.
The uncertainty principle is alternatively expressed in terms of a particle's momentum and position. The momentum of a particle is equal to the product of its mass times its velocity. Thus, the product of the uncertainties in the momentum and the position of a particle equal h (2) or more. The principle applies to other related (conjugate) pairs of observables, such as energy and time: the product of the uncertainty in an energy measurement and the uncertainty in the time interval during which the measurement is made also equals h/ (2) or more. The same relation holds, for an unstable atom or nucleus, between the uncertainty in the quantity of energy radiated and the uncertainty in the lifetime of the unstable system as it makes a transition to a more stable state.
5. How does the DNA work?
DNA controls the life of the cell-and the lives of organisms made up or cell-in two ways. First, DNA determines the form and function of the cell by regulating the kinds of proteins the cell produces. Second, it passes on all the hereditary information from one generation of cells to the next. Thus DNA is the master plan of all life.DNA molecules lie tightly coiled in the chromosomes of a cell. Each chromosome probably contains one extremely long DNA molecule. On the average, a single human chromosome consists of a DNA molecule that is almost 2 inches (5 centimeters) long. But the DNA molecule is a thread so thin than only some of its details can be seen when magnified by an electrum microscope. Scientists have determined the structure of the DNA molecule primarily on the basis of its chemical composition. They have determined the molecule's shape by bouncing X rays off the atoms in the molecule and then studying the patterns the scattered X rays made on photographic plates. The patters show that the molecule has the shape of a rope ladder that is coiled like a spring. This shape is called a double helix. All DNA molecules have this shape.The DNA ladder contains four building blocks called nucleotides. Nucleotides float freely in the cell nucleus. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar called deoxyribose joined to a phosphate and one of four compounds called bases. The bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine (abbreviated A, C, G, and T). The sides of the ladder contain alternating units of phosphate and sugar. Any other combination of bases is too long or too short. The order of the bases in one strand (half) of the ladder determines the order of the bases in the other strand.
Before a cell divides, the DNA duplicates. The ladder splits lengthwise separating the two bases that make up each rung. Then ....... half ladder pairs up with unattached nucleotides. But the bases in each half ladder can pair up only with their matching mates. In this was, each new molecules can be seen at mitosis as the two chromatics of a chromosome. When the cell undergoes mitosis and cytogenesis, each new daughter cell receives identical DNA molecules.
The Twentieth
Century: Arts and the Media
The
twentieth century is a great age of modernism, which brought tremendous change
in the society. Industrialism, urbanization, demographic explosion, development
of mass communication, advance state of science and technology have radically
changed the attitude of human beings. The so-called tradition is sacked by
different innovations in 20th century. People of twentieth century have already
experienced two devastating world wars which brought great destruction and
havoc in the world. Due to the frequent wars, and the destructive activities;
people's psyche is shaped by fear of third world war. The sense of humanity,
morality religiosity all are gone from the society, now mores are replaced by
money, mere anarchy is defused everywhere. Around the above mentioned
atmosphere people are fated to live life. Since art is the true replica of the
society, therefore, twentieth century art captures those realities.
The
greatest artists Picasso and Baroque have helped us to see what is
happening to our lives and what may occur in the future. Picasso in his
painting "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" has shown distorted female
figures unlike traditional paintings about female by applying cubism, modern
movement in painting. Similarly, in his world famous painting"Guernica" we find the horror picture of Spanish
civil war and its aftermath. Braque also painted capturing the displeasing
scenario of modern life by using different colors without any systemeticity to
reinforce the chaotic atmosphere of twentieth century. He also applied cubism
in his paintings.
Pollock, an American artist painted an expressionistic symbolic style. Similarly Rothko, in his works relied chiefly on color and ambiguous boundaries on rectangular forms to create a range of mood. He mainly painted recognizable subjects including city scenes full of chaos. He also brought theme from myths and set it in modern scenario so as to bring home that there is no different between the destructive activities found in myth and modern society.
The 20th century has seen a revolution in architecture almost as radical and far reaching as the revolution in painting and the sculpture. It has not only affected individual building but also changed the look and the very idea of the city. Le Corbusier is often considered as the most important architect of 1900s. He showed his mastery of designing a series of houses during the 1920s.
During the 1930s and 40s he built few buildings. His interest in city planning became dominant. He proposed the demolition of urban areas and their rebuilding according to his own ideas on planning and architecture. His major achievement in city planning was his plan and design for the principal buildings of a new city of Chandigarh, India in the 1950s.In the field of literature also we find the sordid reality of modern life. The degenerated life of modern people is shown in the masterpiece of T.S Eliot 'The Waste Land'. This is the poem where the poet is trying to show how the modern people are hankering after material comfort at the cost of having sense of religiosity. Modern people are also sexually perverted disregarding bright side of life.
Another literary figure of 20th century is W.B. Yeats who through his poetry has done operation of 20th century, full of war and destruction. In his famous poem, 'The second coming', W.B Yeats has shown the chaotic and destructive scenario of life where only anarchy can be found. The place of religion has been occupied by war and destruction in the 20th century. As he says:
"Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer
Things fall apart, the centre cannot hold
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world".
Since the psyche of 20th century people is affected by mass killings and destruction brought out by wars, they began to be disenchanted towards life. A sort of existential problem has come. What is life? How can it be fruitful? And such so many questions started being raised among people. Such existential problem is shown by Sarnuel Backett in his famous play 'The Waiting for Godot'. In the play, two characters Estrogen and Vladimir wait for Godot but that Godot never comes in their life. Here, Godot may be anything. It is the fate of every human being that they are waiting their own godot but they die before meeting with so - called Godot.
The problem created by colonialism is also discussed by writers during 20th century. In the last phase of 20th century, almost every country got freedom from the grip of colonization. But still the problem of culture, language and behavior can be found. Such problem and misunderstanding between two cultures are shown in E.M Froster in his famous novel, 'A Passage to India' misunderstanding between English and Indian is discussed there.
Pollock, an American artist painted an expressionistic symbolic style. Similarly Rothko, in his works relied chiefly on color and ambiguous boundaries on rectangular forms to create a range of mood. He mainly painted recognizable subjects including city scenes full of chaos. He also brought theme from myths and set it in modern scenario so as to bring home that there is no different between the destructive activities found in myth and modern society.
The 20th century has seen a revolution in architecture almost as radical and far reaching as the revolution in painting and the sculpture. It has not only affected individual building but also changed the look and the very idea of the city. Le Corbusier is often considered as the most important architect of 1900s. He showed his mastery of designing a series of houses during the 1920s.
During the 1930s and 40s he built few buildings. His interest in city planning became dominant. He proposed the demolition of urban areas and their rebuilding according to his own ideas on planning and architecture. His major achievement in city planning was his plan and design for the principal buildings of a new city of Chandigarh, India in the 1950s.In the field of literature also we find the sordid reality of modern life. The degenerated life of modern people is shown in the masterpiece of T.S Eliot 'The Waste Land'. This is the poem where the poet is trying to show how the modern people are hankering after material comfort at the cost of having sense of religiosity. Modern people are also sexually perverted disregarding bright side of life.
Another literary figure of 20th century is W.B. Yeats who through his poetry has done operation of 20th century, full of war and destruction. In his famous poem, 'The second coming', W.B Yeats has shown the chaotic and destructive scenario of life where only anarchy can be found. The place of religion has been occupied by war and destruction in the 20th century. As he says:
"Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer
Things fall apart, the centre cannot hold
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world".
Since the psyche of 20th century people is affected by mass killings and destruction brought out by wars, they began to be disenchanted towards life. A sort of existential problem has come. What is life? How can it be fruitful? And such so many questions started being raised among people. Such existential problem is shown by Sarnuel Backett in his famous play 'The Waiting for Godot'. In the play, two characters Estrogen and Vladimir wait for Godot but that Godot never comes in their life. Here, Godot may be anything. It is the fate of every human being that they are waiting their own godot but they die before meeting with so - called Godot.
The problem created by colonialism is also discussed by writers during 20th century. In the last phase of 20th century, almost every country got freedom from the grip of colonization. But still the problem of culture, language and behavior can be found. Such problem and misunderstanding between two cultures are shown in E.M Froster in his famous novel, 'A Passage to India' misunderstanding between English and Indian is discussed there.
Mass Media and
Education
In the 20th century, the press, radio and television are very important things which focus the attention on certain personalities and issues, and many people subsequently form opinions about these issues. Now because of the development of mass media life style of people has dramatically changed in comparison to earlier ages. Since about 1920 the growth and apparent influence of communications technology have attracted the attention of many specialists who have attempted to isolate communication as a specific facet of their particular interest.
In the 20th century, the press, radio and television are very important things which focus the attention on certain personalities and issues, and many people subsequently form opinions about these issues. Now because of the development of mass media life style of people has dramatically changed in comparison to earlier ages. Since about 1920 the growth and apparent influence of communications technology have attracted the attention of many specialists who have attempted to isolate communication as a specific facet of their particular interest.
For instance
1. Psychologists: useful communication for their investigation of person's mind.
1. Psychologists: useful communication for their investigation of person's mind.
2. Social
scientists: they have
identified various forms of communication by which myths, styles of living,
mores and tradition are passed either from generation to generation or from one
segment of society to another.
3. Political
scientist and economists: They have
recognized that communication of many types lies at the heart of the
regularities in the social order
The Twentieth Century: Arts and the Media
In the
1960s, a Canadian educator, Marshall Mcluhan drew the threads of interest in
the field of communication into a view that associated many contemporary
psychological and sociological phenomena with the media employed in modern
culture. Mcluhan's often repeated idea "the medium is the message"
stimulated numerous filmmakers, photographers, artists and others. Medium is
the message and always affects the message.The mass media play extremely
important role in letting individuals know what other people think and in
giving leaders large audiences. In this way, they make it possible for public
opinion to include a large number of individuals and to spread over wider
geographical areas. In some European countries, like growth of broadcasting and
especially television has affected the operation of the parliamentary system.
In France and the United State, television has been regarded as a powerful
force strengthening the presidential system, since the president can easily
appeal to a national audience over the heads of elected legislative
representatives. Besides, mass media has become distributor of education.In
developed countries students - teacher interaction in school and college has
gradually been old fashioned. Now students study through Television and
internet not through teacher and lecturer. Now, media has become an integral
part of modern life. We are now in such an age where media will decide what we
read, eat, wear, think, behave, etc. We have become consumer - beings and have
also become slave of mass media, which we cannot avoid.
Some Important Topics
1) Romanticism: Romanticism which can be considered Europe's last common cultural epoch to life began toward the end to the 18th century and lasted till the middle of the 19th. It started in Germany as a reaction to enlightenment's emphasis on reason and the cool intellectualism of Kant. It laid more emphasize to feeling, imagination, experience and yearning. This gave an individual the complete freedom to interpret life in his our way, and thus, led to the freedom of artistic genius which can be seen in the music of Beethoven.
Novalis had described in a novel about a young man who was searching for a 'blue flower' that he had once seen in a dream. This yearning for something distant and unattainable was the characteristic of Romantics. They longed for distant cultures like the Orient with its mysticism. They were attracted by the night the twilight, the old ruins and the supernatural. They were also interested in the dark side of life that was gloomy strange and mystical. Another feature of Romanticism was the interest in nature and its hidden mystery. The romantics made Rousseau's slogan 'back to nature' popular. Schelling saw a world spirit in nature and in the human mind. He considered the natural and spiritual expressions as the same thing. For many romantics, philosophy, nature study and poetry formed a synthesis. These romantics went inside themselves and created a new world. Romanticism helped in strengthening the feeling of national identity. There were two forms of romanticism:
a) The universal romanticism: It referred to the romantics who were interested in the nature, world soul and artistic genius. This form became popular around 1800 in Germany in the town of Jena.
b) The National romanticism: It referred to the romantics who were interested in history, culture and the language of the people. This form of romanticism became popular in the town of Heidelberg.
2) The Baroque: 17th century is often called Baroque period. The word 'baroque' came from the word that was first used to describe "a pearl of irregular shape". Irregularity was typical of Baroque art which was much richer in highly contrastive forms than the plainer and more harmonious renaissance art. One of the Baroque period's favorite saying was the Latin expression that was widely quoted.
a) Carpe diem: which means seize the day or enjoy the moment.
b) Memento Mori: which means remember that you most die.
In art and painting of Baroque period, we find an extremely luxurious life style. This age is characterized by vanity and affectation. Many people at this period were concerned about the ephemeral nature of things i.e. beauty that surrounds us must one day perish. It is sad to realize that nothing last. The Baroque period was also an age of conflict in a political sense. Europe was ravaged by wars. The worst was the thirty years war which raged over most of the continent from 1618 to 1648, war between Protestant and Catholic.
Shakespeare wrote his greatest plays around the year 1600, so he stands with one foot in the Renaissance and the other in Baroque. His work in full of passage about life as theatre. For example in As You Like It he says.
"All the world's a stage
And all the men and women mere players"
In Macbeth, he says.
"Life is but a walking shadow, a poor player..."
In his works, Shakespeare seems to be preoccupied by the brevity of life.
During the Baroque period, philosophy was divided into two extremes, materialism and spiritualism Thomas Hobbes was supporter of materialism and Leibniz was supporter of spiritualism. Both were thinks of the Baroque period.
3) Eugenics: It is the science of producing healthy intelligent children with the aim of improving the general characteristics of the human race. Francis Galton was one of the first moderns to present a carefully considered eugenic program. In his book 'Hereditary Genius', he advocated arranged marriages between men of distinction and women of wealth that would eventually produce a gifted race. Adolf Hitler was also a strong believer in eugenics, hoping by its principles to rid 'undesirables' from the world such as Jews, black's gypsies and homosexual. Influential U.S eugenists also favored the sterilization of the insane, the epileptic, and the retarded. In recent times, forced sterilization has been imposed upon persons suffering from certain diseases such as syphilis and AIDS. There are many arguments regarding eugenics. Some people say prisons are crowded with recidivist criminals. Since criminal activities probably inherited so they should be sterilized to make the next generation free from their progeny. Many people fear that a eugenic program would take away basic human rights such as people's right to marry whom they choose. They also fear that control of reproduction might be misused. Some people are of the opinion that human race depends not only on heredity but also on an improved environment and education. Encouraging the persons who are above average mental and physical fitness to have more children is positive eugenics whereas discouraging the persons who are below average mental and physical fitness to have no children is negative eugenics.
4) The Gaia Hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, the earth is a living organism which function as a unified whole to regulate condition in the air, land and water. It was named for Gaia, the ancient Greek goddess of the earth. The Jesuit philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin in his famous book, the phenomenon of Man presented a surprising and illuminating picture of the world. He though that, we are normally well aware about three spheres that are hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere but beyond there is one sphere that is no sphere that means 'mind'. The earth itself is conscious about human activities and by applying greater Mind, it regulates upon air, land and water. An example of how Gaia might work can be found in a tropical rain forest. Trees give off water through their leaves in a process called transpiration's. By adding humanity to the air, the trees increase the number of rainstorms that occur. As a result, the environment necessary for a rain forest is maintained in two ways first, the rain keeps the trees watered. Second, rain clouds block the sum to keep the forest from overheating. The Gaia hypothesis was first presented in 1968 by James E. Lovelock, a British chemist, biologist and inventor by saying that the earth is influenced by life to sustain life and the planet is the core of a single, unified, living system.
5) Genetic Engineering: It is the term applied to techniques that alter the genes or combination of genes in an organism. The cells of all living organisms contain genes. Genes carry chemical information that determines the organism's characteristics. By changing an organism's genes, scientists can give the organism and its descendants different traits. In earlier ages, through controlled breeding, human began to produce new varieties. However such controlled breading or crossbreeding is a relatively slow and clumsy method of improving animal and plant species. The genetic code imbedded in the DNA molecule in every cell of every living thing, offers a much more precise and rapid method of changing species and producing specimens that will serve our needs. Besides that different diseases of human beings can be cured by genetic engineering. A number of human illnesses are caused by the failure of certain genes in the body to make specific proteins. For example, the failure of genes in the pancreas to make insulin causes diabetes.
1) Romanticism: Romanticism which can be considered Europe's last common cultural epoch to life began toward the end to the 18th century and lasted till the middle of the 19th. It started in Germany as a reaction to enlightenment's emphasis on reason and the cool intellectualism of Kant. It laid more emphasize to feeling, imagination, experience and yearning. This gave an individual the complete freedom to interpret life in his our way, and thus, led to the freedom of artistic genius which can be seen in the music of Beethoven.
Novalis had described in a novel about a young man who was searching for a 'blue flower' that he had once seen in a dream. This yearning for something distant and unattainable was the characteristic of Romantics. They longed for distant cultures like the Orient with its mysticism. They were attracted by the night the twilight, the old ruins and the supernatural. They were also interested in the dark side of life that was gloomy strange and mystical. Another feature of Romanticism was the interest in nature and its hidden mystery. The romantics made Rousseau's slogan 'back to nature' popular. Schelling saw a world spirit in nature and in the human mind. He considered the natural and spiritual expressions as the same thing. For many romantics, philosophy, nature study and poetry formed a synthesis. These romantics went inside themselves and created a new world. Romanticism helped in strengthening the feeling of national identity. There were two forms of romanticism:
a) The universal romanticism: It referred to the romantics who were interested in the nature, world soul and artistic genius. This form became popular around 1800 in Germany in the town of Jena.
b) The National romanticism: It referred to the romantics who were interested in history, culture and the language of the people. This form of romanticism became popular in the town of Heidelberg.
2) The Baroque: 17th century is often called Baroque period. The word 'baroque' came from the word that was first used to describe "a pearl of irregular shape". Irregularity was typical of Baroque art which was much richer in highly contrastive forms than the plainer and more harmonious renaissance art. One of the Baroque period's favorite saying was the Latin expression that was widely quoted.
a) Carpe diem: which means seize the day or enjoy the moment.
b) Memento Mori: which means remember that you most die.
In art and painting of Baroque period, we find an extremely luxurious life style. This age is characterized by vanity and affectation. Many people at this period were concerned about the ephemeral nature of things i.e. beauty that surrounds us must one day perish. It is sad to realize that nothing last. The Baroque period was also an age of conflict in a political sense. Europe was ravaged by wars. The worst was the thirty years war which raged over most of the continent from 1618 to 1648, war between Protestant and Catholic.
Shakespeare wrote his greatest plays around the year 1600, so he stands with one foot in the Renaissance and the other in Baroque. His work in full of passage about life as theatre. For example in As You Like It he says.
"All the world's a stage
And all the men and women mere players"
In Macbeth, he says.
"Life is but a walking shadow, a poor player..."
In his works, Shakespeare seems to be preoccupied by the brevity of life.
During the Baroque period, philosophy was divided into two extremes, materialism and spiritualism Thomas Hobbes was supporter of materialism and Leibniz was supporter of spiritualism. Both were thinks of the Baroque period.
3) Eugenics: It is the science of producing healthy intelligent children with the aim of improving the general characteristics of the human race. Francis Galton was one of the first moderns to present a carefully considered eugenic program. In his book 'Hereditary Genius', he advocated arranged marriages between men of distinction and women of wealth that would eventually produce a gifted race. Adolf Hitler was also a strong believer in eugenics, hoping by its principles to rid 'undesirables' from the world such as Jews, black's gypsies and homosexual. Influential U.S eugenists also favored the sterilization of the insane, the epileptic, and the retarded. In recent times, forced sterilization has been imposed upon persons suffering from certain diseases such as syphilis and AIDS. There are many arguments regarding eugenics. Some people say prisons are crowded with recidivist criminals. Since criminal activities probably inherited so they should be sterilized to make the next generation free from their progeny. Many people fear that a eugenic program would take away basic human rights such as people's right to marry whom they choose. They also fear that control of reproduction might be misused. Some people are of the opinion that human race depends not only on heredity but also on an improved environment and education. Encouraging the persons who are above average mental and physical fitness to have more children is positive eugenics whereas discouraging the persons who are below average mental and physical fitness to have no children is negative eugenics.
4) The Gaia Hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, the earth is a living organism which function as a unified whole to regulate condition in the air, land and water. It was named for Gaia, the ancient Greek goddess of the earth. The Jesuit philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin in his famous book, the phenomenon of Man presented a surprising and illuminating picture of the world. He though that, we are normally well aware about three spheres that are hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere but beyond there is one sphere that is no sphere that means 'mind'. The earth itself is conscious about human activities and by applying greater Mind, it regulates upon air, land and water. An example of how Gaia might work can be found in a tropical rain forest. Trees give off water through their leaves in a process called transpiration's. By adding humanity to the air, the trees increase the number of rainstorms that occur. As a result, the environment necessary for a rain forest is maintained in two ways first, the rain keeps the trees watered. Second, rain clouds block the sum to keep the forest from overheating. The Gaia hypothesis was first presented in 1968 by James E. Lovelock, a British chemist, biologist and inventor by saying that the earth is influenced by life to sustain life and the planet is the core of a single, unified, living system.
5) Genetic Engineering: It is the term applied to techniques that alter the genes or combination of genes in an organism. The cells of all living organisms contain genes. Genes carry chemical information that determines the organism's characteristics. By changing an organism's genes, scientists can give the organism and its descendants different traits. In earlier ages, through controlled breeding, human began to produce new varieties. However such controlled breading or crossbreeding is a relatively slow and clumsy method of improving animal and plant species. The genetic code imbedded in the DNA molecule in every cell of every living thing, offers a much more precise and rapid method of changing species and producing specimens that will serve our needs. Besides that different diseases of human beings can be cured by genetic engineering. A number of human illnesses are caused by the failure of certain genes in the body to make specific proteins. For example, the failure of genes in the pancreas to make insulin causes diabetes.
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